In this installment of the Laws You Should Know is Mendelev's Periodic Law. Elements are the essential blocks to our world microcosm and macrocosm worlds. Each element has its own spirit entity. Every substance in the universe has a composition of individual elements. We are merely saying elements have their own character
The elements have atoms that can be the same but different from the atoms of every other element. What creates the difference is that each element have their own particular atomic weight as John Dalton showed, and that each element has its own unique set of properties. Chemists in 1860 identified and studied sixty-plus different elements. They noticed each element has similarities to some of the other elements.
How are elements similar? There are elements that are gases, and others are metals. Some are extremely reactive like hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine. They have a rapid chemical reaction when combined. You would not find some of these on earth in their uncombined pure form. We have gold, platinum, and nitrogen that are more inert. They don't combine as easily with other elements. The aforementioned elements are found here on earth in their elemental form like gold nuggets or nitrogen gas.
Nature has its patterns. As more elements being discovered it looks as if the elements would have some sort of pattern. First we looked at the atomic weight. Remember Dalton showed the atoms of different elements are different in weight? We calculated the atomic weight of each element. Thank God for oxygen being a very common element that combines with most other elements, and it became the standard measure of weight. All elements were weighed by comparing them to the weight of oxygen. Now it became easy for all the known chemical elements could then be arranged in order by weight. Now chemists were able with confidence to examine the physical and chemical properties of the elements, hoping to find a pattern. The chemical properties were paramount in the search for patterns. At that time of the known elements they react with other elements to form compounds. We found each element combines with others only in certain ways.
Now chemists gave each element a particular combining number, or valence, passed on how it joins with other elements. The following examples are one oxygen will combine with two hydrogen atoms to form water. Each hydrogen atom has a valence of 1 and the oxygen atom has a valence of 2. The result is one oxygen atom can combine with two hydrogen. One atom of oxygen will combine with one atom of calcium to form calcium oxide. You can visualize the picture of the calcium atom , like the oxygen, must have a valence of 2.
How do we form ammonia? We will put one nitrogen atom combine it with three hydrogen atoms, and "Whaa La!" We know each hydrogen atom has a combining power of 1, then nitrogen's valence must be 3. Here are the 18 elements known in 1860 by weight, and their valence.
Element - Valence
Hydrogen - 1
Lithium - 1
Beryllium - 2
Boron - 3
Carbon - 4
Nitrogen - 3
Oxygen - 2
Fluorine - 1
Sodium - 1
Magnesium - 2
Aluminum - 3
Silicon - 4
Phosphorus - 3
Sulfur - 2
Chlorine - 1
Potassium - 1
Calcium - 2
Titanium - 3
The valence is only one of many properties each element has. Finely all properties found a fit into a simple pattern. Our great minds thought of different numerical arrangements to form a pattern. Some elements didn't fit the pattern properly. By 1866, John Newlands thought the elements should follow a pattern like a musical scale. The combining numbers, or valences, seemed to repeat themselves in groups of seven. Newland's published chart of elements arranged in this pattern worked well for the lighter elements, but fell apart with the heavier elements. Newland came close but no cigar!
In 1869, a Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev, at last won the honor of discovering the pattern of the elements. He realized the valence of the elements are the most important chemical property. The valences shows exactly how each element reacts with all other elements. Mendeleyev arranged the elements according to their atomic weight, followed by their valences. when he group the elements this way he discovered that their chemical and physical properties showed a periodic or repeating pattern.
The other great minds were looking for a "magic number" like the magic number of 9* (which will be explained latter) the elements that repeated again and again through the list of known elements. Mendeleyev didn't try to force the issue into a regular numerical pattern. He got to the fourth repetition of the periodic cycle and found a large number of elements in the list having a valence of 3. Now he made the period longer. The "extra" elements all had to be included before the cycle continued. The same thing occurred for the fifth period, and the sixth period. Mendeleyev reasoned by grouping the elements by their properties, rather than any particular number, he simply widened his chart to make room for the additional elements that belonged in those groups. This discovery is now Mendeleyev's Period Law:arrangement in order of atomic weight, the elements periodically repeat similar physical and chemical properties.This is known as the periodic law. Mendeleyev's chart of the elements, shows this repetition of the properties, is known as the periodic law. The chart is the most complete statement of Mendeleyev's law.
Move from left to right and down the page, the elements are in order by atomic weight. Each row across the page is called a period. Each period is one complete repetition of similar chemical and physical properties. Each column of elements in the table is a group of elements with similar properties. We call these groups of elements families of elements. The elements in the left most column are the alkali metals family. The family members are hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium. They are metallic. Hydrogen acts like a metal at very low temperatures. They all have a valence of 1. these elements are chemically active, except for hydrogen gas, and are never found on earth in their pure form. Note these elements are always combined with other elements in compounds. the second column has another group of metals, known as the alkaline earth metals. They have a valence of 2. these are also reactive, but not so reactive as the elements in the first column.
The last column, has a family of elements known as halogens. The halogens are non metals that are very chemically active. Fluorine is the most reactive element of all. It is so reactive and almost impossible to produce and keep in its elemental form. It will react with glass! The halogens include the elements chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Their valence is 1 and react strongly with metals. They have strong, unpleasant odors, and are quite poisonous.
Mendeleyev arranged the elements by their properties, and found several places where an element seemed to be missing. He knew where the missing elements belonged. So he mad a prediction that the four new elements would be found. If found, they would prove that Mendeleyev's periodic law was correct.
In 1874, five years after Mendeleyev first published his periodic table, the first discovery was made. A French chemist found a missing element. It was named gallium. Its atomic weight and physical and chemical properties matched Mendeleyev's prediction.
The second and the third soon followed, but the fourth element wasn't found until 1937. It was named technetium, because it was produced in a laboratory. Technetium is radioactive and quickly decays into other elements. It's lifetime is short and no longer exists naturally on the earth. It does exist. Mendeleyev's prediction had all proved true.
How did the elements follow this periodic pattern, after fifty years of Mendeleyev's discovery? The laws that describe the structure of atoms is known as the principles of quantum mechanics, explain why the elements form groups with similar properties. The family of gases was found in the late 1800s. these gases were difficult to find because they didn't react at all with other elements. The family consists of Helium, argon, neon, krypton, xenon, and radon.
Other large groups were found and they fit nicely into the pattern that Mendeleyev found. Mendeleyev found his niche with the chemical properties of elements. The current periodic table includes 115 elements. They all follow Mendeleyev's periodic law. Mendeleyev found the niche for others to complete the periodic table.
*This can go up to 9 digits: take any three digit number, now reverse that number then add and subtract it. Now reverse the number and add. You will always get 1089.
Wednesday, August 5, 2009
Star Trek Voyager and Planet X and Mu-Mesons and the Global Positioning System
Fiction: Star Trek Voyager Finds Earth-like Planet X:
Star Trek Voyager discovers a planet very much like our Earth - the astronauts check it out before landing: gaseous atmosphere, water, mountains, no visible life forms but vegetation - however it is massive, with an extremely high gravitational pull, and enormous orbital and rotational speeds. They report their findings to Communication HQ and their plans for a brief exploratory walk-around, staying close to the ship - they would report again in twelve hours. Then, gingerly, they retro-rocket their craft down to the ground, landing on a large flat plain.
An exploratory team dons oxygen equipment, protective clothing, boots, and carefully descends the ladder to ground level. The powerful gravity force makes locomotion, even arm movements difficult, but they collect samples of the atmosphere, soil and rocks, even water from a nearby stream. Physically tired on returning to the ship, they shower, change clothing, have some refreshments, check the time and take an hour's rest.
At the appointed hour, the crew gathers in the main cabin. Half have voyaged before and know what to expect; first-timers have all been briefed and eagerly await the contact from home. A tone sounds, and on the screen, letters and numbers sequence quickly, as from a keyboard - hour and date.
While they had been under the influence of the giant planet for the twelve hours since the prior communication - on Earth - and for everyone and everything on it - the elapsed time has been two years.
Time Dilation - the Brilliance of Einstein:
Probably the most "accepted" of all human intuitions is that the "passage of time" is a constant - everywhere. All space science fiction, e.g. Star Trek, is based upon such constancy, the complexity of relationships, otherwise, being impossible. However, in the world of true reality - of our universe and the age of Earth - it is not so. In the real world, every space-time-reference-frame location in the universe is perceived and experienced as - unique in its passage of time - dependent upon the local force of gravity and velocity. Time passage on Earth is different than on the moon, than on any other planet, or solar system, or galaxy, or location in the universe. Our watches would keep a different time, our hearts would beat differently. That was the brilliant deduction of Albert Einstein, from a "thought experiment", laid out in his 1905 and 1915 Field Equations.
From the scientific fact that the speed of light is a universal constant - the identicle specific value when light passes an observer, whether the light source speeds toward or away - Einstein theorized (subsequently proven) that, although the beam of light (its speed a constant), traverses a longer distance (mirror reflection and triangulated path) in the same instant-event,it would be the "amount of time experienced" that had to be different; that "time" is what would vary as a function of the gravity field and velocity for individual locations. Since then, scientists have proven his theory and measured those differences.
Einstein's "thought experiment" was brilliant, revolutionary (even magical), yet simple: Time (seconds) = Distance (miles) divided by Speed (miles per second); thus a flash of light viewed by two observers: one moving, one stationary; the distance traveled by the angle-reflected light beam being longer to the stationary observer - as the speed of light is a constant, the "perception" of the observed passage of time for the moving observer (witnessing the single event) had to be less. The difference in "perceived time" is called relativistic time dilation, and the concept was thoroughly proved by the Haefele-Keating experiment in 1972, atomic clocks on Boeing 707 and Concorde SST aircraft, being flown at different speeds, altitudes and directions.
World-class Cosmologists Views:
World-class Cosmologists G. L. Schroeder ("Genesis and the Big Bang", "The Science of God") and N. Aviezer ("In the Beginning") - explain relativity in terms of the Big Bang's aftermath - the experience of "time passage" differs to observers at different locations - due to differing gravity and velocity parameters: "million-million factor - average difference between the perceptions of Earth time and Cosmic time .. stretching of light waves .. [due to] universe's expansion .. slowed the 'perceived time' - on what would become Earth - by a million-million."
Schroeder further explains: "we can experience differences in time passage only when comparing events across a boundary of (space-time) reference-frames .. and even then, only when the gravity and speeds are vastly different"; also, "Within a reference frame, all will seem perfectly normal (or Newtonian), regardless of gravity and speed."
Solid-Science Example - Mu-mesons:
The mu-meson provides a clear example of dramatic time dilation - how 200 micro-seconds to one observer are the same as 4.5 micro-seconds to another. Mu-mesons are not only found in high-energy physics labs, but also result when cosmic rays from outer space slam into nuclei of atmospheric gases 60 kilometers above Earth. The energy released is so great that speeds almost that of light result. An established factor of mu-mesons is the 50% decay rate in 1.5 micro-seconds. To an observer on Earth, the 60 kilometers altitude-distance, with the mu-mesons traveling at near light-speed, should take about 200 micro-seconds. At 1.5 micro-second half-life periods, there should, therefore, be 133 such "halvings" during the 60 kilometer descent, and at the established decay rate, the number of mu-mesons surviving the trip to ground (.5 to the 133th power) should be less than one out of billions of billions. Yet, fully one-eighth of the mu-mesons do reach ground level. By logic, therefore, the elapsed time for the mu-mesons to reach Earth had to be only 4.5 microseconds (three periods of half-decay).
Despite explanations and examples, the concept of two vastly differing time-passages - of the same event - by two observers (in differing gravity and speed domains across a space-time-reference) remains difficult to grasp. More examples of time-dilation, however, may help:
Time-Dilation in our Daily Lives - GPS - Global Positioning System:
Developed by the Department Of Defense, then extended to civilian navigation, then to automobiles and hand-held devices, the GPS has been fully operational since 1993. With 24 satellites circling Earth at 12,000 miles altitude and 8,400 miles per hour (not geo-synchronous or geo-stationary orbits), four satellites, as a minimum, are always visible to (and can see) any spot on Earth. The atomic clocks aboard, as on Earth, are accurate to a billionth of a second. As a "slight" but significant aspect of Einstein's time-dilation laws, the differences in parameters of gravity (one-sixth of Earth's) and velocity (also different than on Earth's surface), necessitate periodic synchronization with Earth-based atomic clocks. The difference is 38 micro-seconds per day: Einstein's General Relativity = +45; Special Relativity = -7; Total adjustment = 38 millionths of a second per day.
Unusual Aspects of Time Dilation:
In the expanding Universe, "space" is expanding, not "matter" - galaxies and solar systems retain their size - the distances between galaxies increase;
A moving atomic clock ticks more slowly than a stationary one;
At speeds of 1/10 that of light, time dilation is less than 1 percent (however, as the speed of light (c) is neared - the dilation effect increases dramatically):
If traveling at 0.99c, a 24 hour day = seven Earth-days;
If traveling @ 0.9997c, 24 hours = 40 Earth-days;
If @ 0.999 999 999 95c, one day = 550 Earth-years;
If @ 0.999 999 999 999 999 999 999 995c = 457 Million Earth-years.
The shocker, of course, is at the beginning of our Universe - when what would become Earth was a tiny speck of matter - adding Big Bang's gravity, an unimaginable force - while also traveling at an incredible speed - in an expanding Universe. The smartest cosmologists calculated it: 13.7 Billion Earth-years, the scientifically established age of our Universe - but to a Cosmos observer, it was only six days of Cosmic Time (24 hour days) - on what would become Earth.
Six Days Cosmic Time and 13.7 Billion Years:
Cosmologists like Gerald L. Schroeder do not engage in philosophical explanations to reconcile science and theology - of a "day" being an allegorical epoch - stating clearly that "the same single sequence of events that encompasses the time period from the beginning of the universe to the appearance of mankind - did take six days - and also 15 billion years - simultaneously - starting at the same instant and finishing at the same instant." (Note: Since the writing of his book in 1992, the age of the Universe has now been more precisely established from his "about 15" to 13.7 billion years.) Thus, by Einstein's time-dilation equations, there were truly only six 24 hour days from the Big Bang's creation of our Universe to the appearance of Mankind; and yet, Cosmic Day 5 (24 hours) also, truly included the hundreds of millions of years of the dinosaurs (if an observer were on Earth).
Reference point for a Cosmic-Clock-Calendar:
The two times above are both "real" (vouchsafed and interpreted by world-class scientists) - 13.7 billion years from the Big Bang's creation of our Universe to human-kind, and six (24 hour) days of Cosmic time - each being correct in its own time-reference plane. For the Cosmic-Clock-Calendar" there is but one realistic reference consideration, unchanging since the Big Bang and the creation of the Universe - the "cosmic background radiation" (CBR). Says Schroeder, "The radiation remnant of the Big Bang fills the entire universe, unrelated to any particular source," Discovered by Penzias and Wilson in 1965, it is the only source of radiation that has been present and ubiquitous since creation. "CBR frequency forms the basis of cosmic proper time, the biblical clock of Genesis." In his "Genesis and the Big Bang", Schroeder comments on the six days or about 14 billion years to the differing observers in differing reference planes: "Which understanding is correct? Both are - literally - with no allegorical modifications of these two, simultaneous, yet different time periods. "It is unequivocal, six 24 hour-days elapsed between .. the start of the Big Bang and the appearance of mankind - and simultaneously, it took [also and almost] 14 billion - 365 day-years, to get from .. the Big bang .. to mankind."
Note 1: A comparison between Cosmic time (per Astronomy and Earth science) to Genesis (Bible), shows remarkable sequence and day-by-day correlation: formation of galaxies, solar system, Earth, water, vegetation, aquatic and flying creatures, mammals and man - different words - not a single disparity.
Note 2: A time-dilation triviality - a cross-country flight will result in the passengers and crew "aging" less than groundlings - by about one forty-billionth of a second.
Aaron Kolom qualifies as a "rocket scientist" with over 50 years aerospace engineering: Stress Analyst to Chief of Structural Sciences on numerous military aircraft, to Corp. Director Structures and Materials, Asst. Chief Engineer Space Shuttle Program through first three flights (awarded NASA Public Service Medal), Rockwell International Corp.; Program Manager Concorde SST, VP Engineering TRE Corp.; Aerospace Consultant
Star Trek Voyager discovers a planet very much like our Earth - the astronauts check it out before landing: gaseous atmosphere, water, mountains, no visible life forms but vegetation - however it is massive, with an extremely high gravitational pull, and enormous orbital and rotational speeds. They report their findings to Communication HQ and their plans for a brief exploratory walk-around, staying close to the ship - they would report again in twelve hours. Then, gingerly, they retro-rocket their craft down to the ground, landing on a large flat plain.
An exploratory team dons oxygen equipment, protective clothing, boots, and carefully descends the ladder to ground level. The powerful gravity force makes locomotion, even arm movements difficult, but they collect samples of the atmosphere, soil and rocks, even water from a nearby stream. Physically tired on returning to the ship, they shower, change clothing, have some refreshments, check the time and take an hour's rest.
At the appointed hour, the crew gathers in the main cabin. Half have voyaged before and know what to expect; first-timers have all been briefed and eagerly await the contact from home. A tone sounds, and on the screen, letters and numbers sequence quickly, as from a keyboard - hour and date.
While they had been under the influence of the giant planet for the twelve hours since the prior communication - on Earth - and for everyone and everything on it - the elapsed time has been two years.
Time Dilation - the Brilliance of Einstein:
Probably the most "accepted" of all human intuitions is that the "passage of time" is a constant - everywhere. All space science fiction, e.g. Star Trek, is based upon such constancy, the complexity of relationships, otherwise, being impossible. However, in the world of true reality - of our universe and the age of Earth - it is not so. In the real world, every space-time-reference-frame location in the universe is perceived and experienced as - unique in its passage of time - dependent upon the local force of gravity and velocity. Time passage on Earth is different than on the moon, than on any other planet, or solar system, or galaxy, or location in the universe. Our watches would keep a different time, our hearts would beat differently. That was the brilliant deduction of Albert Einstein, from a "thought experiment", laid out in his 1905 and 1915 Field Equations.
From the scientific fact that the speed of light is a universal constant - the identicle specific value when light passes an observer, whether the light source speeds toward or away - Einstein theorized (subsequently proven) that, although the beam of light (its speed a constant), traverses a longer distance (mirror reflection and triangulated path) in the same instant-event,it would be the "amount of time experienced" that had to be different; that "time" is what would vary as a function of the gravity field and velocity for individual locations. Since then, scientists have proven his theory and measured those differences.
Einstein's "thought experiment" was brilliant, revolutionary (even magical), yet simple: Time (seconds) = Distance (miles) divided by Speed (miles per second); thus a flash of light viewed by two observers: one moving, one stationary; the distance traveled by the angle-reflected light beam being longer to the stationary observer - as the speed of light is a constant, the "perception" of the observed passage of time for the moving observer (witnessing the single event) had to be less. The difference in "perceived time" is called relativistic time dilation, and the concept was thoroughly proved by the Haefele-Keating experiment in 1972, atomic clocks on Boeing 707 and Concorde SST aircraft, being flown at different speeds, altitudes and directions.
World-class Cosmologists Views:
World-class Cosmologists G. L. Schroeder ("Genesis and the Big Bang", "The Science of God") and N. Aviezer ("In the Beginning") - explain relativity in terms of the Big Bang's aftermath - the experience of "time passage" differs to observers at different locations - due to differing gravity and velocity parameters: "million-million factor - average difference between the perceptions of Earth time and Cosmic time .. stretching of light waves .. [due to] universe's expansion .. slowed the 'perceived time' - on what would become Earth - by a million-million."
Schroeder further explains: "we can experience differences in time passage only when comparing events across a boundary of (space-time) reference-frames .. and even then, only when the gravity and speeds are vastly different"; also, "Within a reference frame, all will seem perfectly normal (or Newtonian), regardless of gravity and speed."
Solid-Science Example - Mu-mesons:
The mu-meson provides a clear example of dramatic time dilation - how 200 micro-seconds to one observer are the same as 4.5 micro-seconds to another. Mu-mesons are not only found in high-energy physics labs, but also result when cosmic rays from outer space slam into nuclei of atmospheric gases 60 kilometers above Earth. The energy released is so great that speeds almost that of light result. An established factor of mu-mesons is the 50% decay rate in 1.5 micro-seconds. To an observer on Earth, the 60 kilometers altitude-distance, with the mu-mesons traveling at near light-speed, should take about 200 micro-seconds. At 1.5 micro-second half-life periods, there should, therefore, be 133 such "halvings" during the 60 kilometer descent, and at the established decay rate, the number of mu-mesons surviving the trip to ground (.5 to the 133th power) should be less than one out of billions of billions. Yet, fully one-eighth of the mu-mesons do reach ground level. By logic, therefore, the elapsed time for the mu-mesons to reach Earth had to be only 4.5 microseconds (three periods of half-decay).
Despite explanations and examples, the concept of two vastly differing time-passages - of the same event - by two observers (in differing gravity and speed domains across a space-time-reference) remains difficult to grasp. More examples of time-dilation, however, may help:
Time-Dilation in our Daily Lives - GPS - Global Positioning System:
Developed by the Department Of Defense, then extended to civilian navigation, then to automobiles and hand-held devices, the GPS has been fully operational since 1993. With 24 satellites circling Earth at 12,000 miles altitude and 8,400 miles per hour (not geo-synchronous or geo-stationary orbits), four satellites, as a minimum, are always visible to (and can see) any spot on Earth. The atomic clocks aboard, as on Earth, are accurate to a billionth of a second. As a "slight" but significant aspect of Einstein's time-dilation laws, the differences in parameters of gravity (one-sixth of Earth's) and velocity (also different than on Earth's surface), necessitate periodic synchronization with Earth-based atomic clocks. The difference is 38 micro-seconds per day: Einstein's General Relativity = +45; Special Relativity = -7; Total adjustment = 38 millionths of a second per day.
Unusual Aspects of Time Dilation:
In the expanding Universe, "space" is expanding, not "matter" - galaxies and solar systems retain their size - the distances between galaxies increase;
A moving atomic clock ticks more slowly than a stationary one;
At speeds of 1/10 that of light, time dilation is less than 1 percent (however, as the speed of light (c) is neared - the dilation effect increases dramatically):
If traveling at 0.99c, a 24 hour day = seven Earth-days;
If traveling @ 0.9997c, 24 hours = 40 Earth-days;
If @ 0.999 999 999 95c, one day = 550 Earth-years;
If @ 0.999 999 999 999 999 999 999 995c = 457 Million Earth-years.
The shocker, of course, is at the beginning of our Universe - when what would become Earth was a tiny speck of matter - adding Big Bang's gravity, an unimaginable force - while also traveling at an incredible speed - in an expanding Universe. The smartest cosmologists calculated it: 13.7 Billion Earth-years, the scientifically established age of our Universe - but to a Cosmos observer, it was only six days of Cosmic Time (24 hour days) - on what would become Earth.
Six Days Cosmic Time and 13.7 Billion Years:
Cosmologists like Gerald L. Schroeder do not engage in philosophical explanations to reconcile science and theology - of a "day" being an allegorical epoch - stating clearly that "the same single sequence of events that encompasses the time period from the beginning of the universe to the appearance of mankind - did take six days - and also 15 billion years - simultaneously - starting at the same instant and finishing at the same instant." (Note: Since the writing of his book in 1992, the age of the Universe has now been more precisely established from his "about 15" to 13.7 billion years.) Thus, by Einstein's time-dilation equations, there were truly only six 24 hour days from the Big Bang's creation of our Universe to the appearance of Mankind; and yet, Cosmic Day 5 (24 hours) also, truly included the hundreds of millions of years of the dinosaurs (if an observer were on Earth).
Reference point for a Cosmic-Clock-Calendar:
The two times above are both "real" (vouchsafed and interpreted by world-class scientists) - 13.7 billion years from the Big Bang's creation of our Universe to human-kind, and six (24 hour) days of Cosmic time - each being correct in its own time-reference plane. For the Cosmic-Clock-Calendar" there is but one realistic reference consideration, unchanging since the Big Bang and the creation of the Universe - the "cosmic background radiation" (CBR). Says Schroeder, "The radiation remnant of the Big Bang fills the entire universe, unrelated to any particular source," Discovered by Penzias and Wilson in 1965, it is the only source of radiation that has been present and ubiquitous since creation. "CBR frequency forms the basis of cosmic proper time, the biblical clock of Genesis." In his "Genesis and the Big Bang", Schroeder comments on the six days or about 14 billion years to the differing observers in differing reference planes: "Which understanding is correct? Both are - literally - with no allegorical modifications of these two, simultaneous, yet different time periods. "It is unequivocal, six 24 hour-days elapsed between .. the start of the Big Bang and the appearance of mankind - and simultaneously, it took [also and almost] 14 billion - 365 day-years, to get from .. the Big bang .. to mankind."
Note 1: A comparison between Cosmic time (per Astronomy and Earth science) to Genesis (Bible), shows remarkable sequence and day-by-day correlation: formation of galaxies, solar system, Earth, water, vegetation, aquatic and flying creatures, mammals and man - different words - not a single disparity.
Note 2: A time-dilation triviality - a cross-country flight will result in the passengers and crew "aging" less than groundlings - by about one forty-billionth of a second.
Aaron Kolom qualifies as a "rocket scientist" with over 50 years aerospace engineering: Stress Analyst to Chief of Structural Sciences on numerous military aircraft, to Corp. Director Structures and Materials, Asst. Chief Engineer Space Shuttle Program through first three flights (awarded NASA Public Service Medal), Rockwell International Corp.; Program Manager Concorde SST, VP Engineering TRE Corp.; Aerospace Consultant
The Brain and How We Learn
Sleep - What is its importance?
You might be surprised to learn that when we are awake there's a section of the brain that wants us to sleep and when we are asleep there's a section of the brain that wants us to be awake. We understand that we learn when we are awake; however, did you know that when we sleep we are still learning.
Our brain plays reruns of what we learned during the day thousands and thousands of times during our sleeping hours. We grasp the concept that we are less effective without sleep. There is a loss of working memory, we have mood swings, our reasoning is altered, our motor skills and responses change in a negative manner. It is not determined the amount of sleep that each individual requires. Many factors such as our age and our gender need to be taken into account. Research shows that about mid-day or around 3 o'clock in the afternoon, we flat line, which is about mid point from your sleeping time and your waking time.A short nap can positively affect productivity.
Exercise
We talk about the brain and the body are two separate entities. They are not. We know that the body needs exercise. Then why do we not stop to recognize that exercise is additionally important to development and learning for the brain? Exercise diminishes the risks for dementia, it reduces stress, it will enhance problem solving skills and it promotes skills necessary for attention. Research additionally demonstrates that people who exercise out will out-perform couch potatoes every time. When exercise ceases, brain function is lessened.
Years ago we were more active physically. We have now become sedimentary. With technological improvements we sit more than ever.
What happens when we move? Why is cognition increased? The answer is really quite obvious. Exercise improves the oxygen flow to all parts of the body, including the brain, which directly leads to mental alertness. The molecular structure of the brain is impacted in a positive manner. Thirty minutes of aerobic exercises, even just two times per week increases the brains productivity much more effectively than weight lifting exercises alone. The brain additionally requires glucose.
It takes as much oxygen from food as possible. We need extra blood vessels to get more oxygen. The way that we get more blood vessels is to increase exercise. Exercise is like Miracle Grow for the brain. There are so many benefits from exercise. It reduces the risk factors for diabetes, it supports memory formation, it strengthens muscles and bones, it helps to control appetite, it aides to improve fluid intelligence, it reduces heart disease and it helps to minimize depression. As always before beginning any exercise regimen see your doctor. The brain craves exercise. So, what are you waiting for?
Why is the brain so complex?
Some scientists believe that our ancestors walked on all fours. If their theory is correct, it was through evolution that we began to walk upright in order that we could function more efficiently. While this freed up our hands, we were no longer building up as many of our muscles. Instead, we were building up our brains. The brain is centered around survival. Because we were in the great outdoors and encountering many dangers, the brain adapted and evolved over time.
As a teacher, I am often reaching out to students to help them feel a sense of pride in regards to their thinking abilities. Athletes are celebrated. Brainiacs are often squelched. Students need to become aware that it is not the strongest body that survives; it is the strongest brain which survives. Humans have never been the strongest physically among the creatures; however, they have the strongest brains. As the climate changed over time, only those with the strongest brains adapted and survived.
It is important to brain development to feel safe. As an educator I see this often. A student is stressed over a test and they do not perform to potential, which is why I work very hard to create an environment where my students feel safe. This is a focus right from the beginning of the year.
Information overload
With cell phones, emails and texting going on in vehicles, there have been an increasing amount of automobile accidents. That is because the brain is not set up for such multi-tasking. The brain has to turn away from one focus for a few seconds to perform another task. Even a fraction of second can make the difference if we need to stop suddenly. Were you aware that statistically texting and the use of cell phones has been shown to be more dangerous than driving with excessive alcohol in our systems.
Education
Unfortunately, the classroom environment has not caught up with the research. Students are still being expected to sit for long periods of time. This is true even though we are becoming increasingly aware of the need for movement. We also know now that each of us have the ability to pay attention for a mere ten minutes at a time. Beyond that the presenter must do something to get the attention of his or her audience. Yet, we often have long lectures structured in the school day. Our brains ignore boring information. It is because our experiences tell us what we should pay attention to, which is why cultural influences our decisions also. It is simply the way our brain is structured. Thus, if we expect our students to pay attention, we need to incorporate movement or music into our day every ten minutes or so.
Our brains forget 90 percent of what is learned within 45 days. It is what happens in the first few seconds that will determine whether we will remember it or not. The human brain is only able to retain seven bits of information for thirty seconds or less. The only way to remember something longer is repetition.
We have several forms of memory. We have automatic memory, which encompasses events that will be recalled even if it is not repeated. Then we have effort processing. This is something that we determine that we want to remember and we repeat it a number of times in order that we might recall it at a later time. We also have working memory. This is memory that will remain with us for a period of time while we need it. It later becomes information that is lost to us. We also have long term memory which is information that we commit to memory through repetition. This is why educators know that spiral education is important.
It makes sense then why multi-sensory classrooms have more effective learners. It is also important to note that the brain will retain more while watching a movie if the smell of lemon or other food in introduced. Just walk into a bakery. Trust me those great smells are not an accident. Also, if two senses are stimulated then mor learning occurs. Three odors are better than two and so on. Research shows that problem solving improves when two or more senses are incorporated. The sense of sight trumps all. If you only hear bits of information, you will remember it for only a short time. If you see the information, you will remember it for a longer period of time. Thus if a presenter effectively combines both the visual and the auditory senses, the brain will remember the information six times more effectively.
Males and females also differ in their brains. There is much research being done presently to understand the differences.
Babies are wonderful to study to learn more about the brain and how it develops, as they are a clean slate. They show how human beings have a natural inclination for learning. It all stems on the need for survival, which is how the human brain evolved initially.
I hope this information will help you to better understand how humans learn.
You might be surprised to learn that when we are awake there's a section of the brain that wants us to sleep and when we are asleep there's a section of the brain that wants us to be awake. We understand that we learn when we are awake; however, did you know that when we sleep we are still learning.
Our brain plays reruns of what we learned during the day thousands and thousands of times during our sleeping hours. We grasp the concept that we are less effective without sleep. There is a loss of working memory, we have mood swings, our reasoning is altered, our motor skills and responses change in a negative manner. It is not determined the amount of sleep that each individual requires. Many factors such as our age and our gender need to be taken into account. Research shows that about mid-day or around 3 o'clock in the afternoon, we flat line, which is about mid point from your sleeping time and your waking time.A short nap can positively affect productivity.
Exercise
We talk about the brain and the body are two separate entities. They are not. We know that the body needs exercise. Then why do we not stop to recognize that exercise is additionally important to development and learning for the brain? Exercise diminishes the risks for dementia, it reduces stress, it will enhance problem solving skills and it promotes skills necessary for attention. Research additionally demonstrates that people who exercise out will out-perform couch potatoes every time. When exercise ceases, brain function is lessened.
Years ago we were more active physically. We have now become sedimentary. With technological improvements we sit more than ever.
What happens when we move? Why is cognition increased? The answer is really quite obvious. Exercise improves the oxygen flow to all parts of the body, including the brain, which directly leads to mental alertness. The molecular structure of the brain is impacted in a positive manner. Thirty minutes of aerobic exercises, even just two times per week increases the brains productivity much more effectively than weight lifting exercises alone. The brain additionally requires glucose.
It takes as much oxygen from food as possible. We need extra blood vessels to get more oxygen. The way that we get more blood vessels is to increase exercise. Exercise is like Miracle Grow for the brain. There are so many benefits from exercise. It reduces the risk factors for diabetes, it supports memory formation, it strengthens muscles and bones, it helps to control appetite, it aides to improve fluid intelligence, it reduces heart disease and it helps to minimize depression. As always before beginning any exercise regimen see your doctor. The brain craves exercise. So, what are you waiting for?
Why is the brain so complex?
Some scientists believe that our ancestors walked on all fours. If their theory is correct, it was through evolution that we began to walk upright in order that we could function more efficiently. While this freed up our hands, we were no longer building up as many of our muscles. Instead, we were building up our brains. The brain is centered around survival. Because we were in the great outdoors and encountering many dangers, the brain adapted and evolved over time.
As a teacher, I am often reaching out to students to help them feel a sense of pride in regards to their thinking abilities. Athletes are celebrated. Brainiacs are often squelched. Students need to become aware that it is not the strongest body that survives; it is the strongest brain which survives. Humans have never been the strongest physically among the creatures; however, they have the strongest brains. As the climate changed over time, only those with the strongest brains adapted and survived.
It is important to brain development to feel safe. As an educator I see this often. A student is stressed over a test and they do not perform to potential, which is why I work very hard to create an environment where my students feel safe. This is a focus right from the beginning of the year.
Information overload
With cell phones, emails and texting going on in vehicles, there have been an increasing amount of automobile accidents. That is because the brain is not set up for such multi-tasking. The brain has to turn away from one focus for a few seconds to perform another task. Even a fraction of second can make the difference if we need to stop suddenly. Were you aware that statistically texting and the use of cell phones has been shown to be more dangerous than driving with excessive alcohol in our systems.
Education
Unfortunately, the classroom environment has not caught up with the research. Students are still being expected to sit for long periods of time. This is true even though we are becoming increasingly aware of the need for movement. We also know now that each of us have the ability to pay attention for a mere ten minutes at a time. Beyond that the presenter must do something to get the attention of his or her audience. Yet, we often have long lectures structured in the school day. Our brains ignore boring information. It is because our experiences tell us what we should pay attention to, which is why cultural influences our decisions also. It is simply the way our brain is structured. Thus, if we expect our students to pay attention, we need to incorporate movement or music into our day every ten minutes or so.
Our brains forget 90 percent of what is learned within 45 days. It is what happens in the first few seconds that will determine whether we will remember it or not. The human brain is only able to retain seven bits of information for thirty seconds or less. The only way to remember something longer is repetition.
We have several forms of memory. We have automatic memory, which encompasses events that will be recalled even if it is not repeated. Then we have effort processing. This is something that we determine that we want to remember and we repeat it a number of times in order that we might recall it at a later time. We also have working memory. This is memory that will remain with us for a period of time while we need it. It later becomes information that is lost to us. We also have long term memory which is information that we commit to memory through repetition. This is why educators know that spiral education is important.
It makes sense then why multi-sensory classrooms have more effective learners. It is also important to note that the brain will retain more while watching a movie if the smell of lemon or other food in introduced. Just walk into a bakery. Trust me those great smells are not an accident. Also, if two senses are stimulated then mor learning occurs. Three odors are better than two and so on. Research shows that problem solving improves when two or more senses are incorporated. The sense of sight trumps all. If you only hear bits of information, you will remember it for only a short time. If you see the information, you will remember it for a longer period of time. Thus if a presenter effectively combines both the visual and the auditory senses, the brain will remember the information six times more effectively.
Males and females also differ in their brains. There is much research being done presently to understand the differences.
Babies are wonderful to study to learn more about the brain and how it develops, as they are a clean slate. They show how human beings have a natural inclination for learning. It all stems on the need for survival, which is how the human brain evolved initially.
I hope this information will help you to better understand how humans learn.
Middle School Science Fair Projects - Brainstorming Ideas For Science Fair Success
There many topics that can be used for middle school science fair projects, covering a range of scientific disciplines. Below is a list of scientific questions that can be adapted for use by the middle school students:
• What kinds of single cell animals live in the water? How are they different from viruses and bacteria? How do they reproduce?
• What is the life cycle of the common butterfly? Name the stages that it goes through from egg to mature adult.
• Explain what DNA is. What is a chromosome? What is a gene? What is inheritance?
• Name four major glands in the body. Make diagrams for them and explain what their function is.
• Name the major classifications for different animal species. How are they different from one another? What are the names of some of the animals in each classification?
• What are the main classifications for rocks? How are they differentiated and what are the different characteristics that make them unique? How was each type formed?
• Using edible ingredients make a sample aquifer. Show how pollutants can get into the water. Show how the water table can be reduced by pumping.
• Get a telescope and observe the night sky. Draw the constellations that you see and explain which time of the year it is based on what ones you see in the night sky.
• Pick a favorite dinosaur and research what kind of environment it was likely to live in. What kinds of food did it most likely eat? What geologic period in time did it come from?
• Research how much goes into our landfills each year that can be recycled or composted. What kinds of environmental advantages could be gained if every American could be convinced to do his part and stopped throwing away reusable items?
• What is a carbon footprint? What are some things that the average person could do to reduce the carbon footprint he makes in a year? How are these changes likely to benefit the environment?
• What kinds of renewable energy sources are being investigated currently? How will these alternatives help the environment? What can be powered using these alternatives?
• Yeast are single celled animals that are used in baking and brewing. What function do they serve? How do they perform their work?
• What are the different cells found in blood? What function does each kind of cell perform for the body?
• What are the four blood types found in humans? What is an Rh factor? Which blood type is the most common? Which is the least common? What is an allele?
• What is lightening? What conditions in the atmosphere are necessary for it to form? Why is it so dangerous?
• What is wind? What causes it to move across the face of the earth?
These are just a few of the many questions you can base your middle school science fair projects on. Choosing a category of interest by which to base your hypothesis is a good starting point. Finding a topic interesting to you is the key to a winning science
• What kinds of single cell animals live in the water? How are they different from viruses and bacteria? How do they reproduce?
• What is the life cycle of the common butterfly? Name the stages that it goes through from egg to mature adult.
• Explain what DNA is. What is a chromosome? What is a gene? What is inheritance?
• Name four major glands in the body. Make diagrams for them and explain what their function is.
• Name the major classifications for different animal species. How are they different from one another? What are the names of some of the animals in each classification?
• What are the main classifications for rocks? How are they differentiated and what are the different characteristics that make them unique? How was each type formed?
• Using edible ingredients make a sample aquifer. Show how pollutants can get into the water. Show how the water table can be reduced by pumping.
• Get a telescope and observe the night sky. Draw the constellations that you see and explain which time of the year it is based on what ones you see in the night sky.
• Pick a favorite dinosaur and research what kind of environment it was likely to live in. What kinds of food did it most likely eat? What geologic period in time did it come from?
• Research how much goes into our landfills each year that can be recycled or composted. What kinds of environmental advantages could be gained if every American could be convinced to do his part and stopped throwing away reusable items?
• What is a carbon footprint? What are some things that the average person could do to reduce the carbon footprint he makes in a year? How are these changes likely to benefit the environment?
• What kinds of renewable energy sources are being investigated currently? How will these alternatives help the environment? What can be powered using these alternatives?
• Yeast are single celled animals that are used in baking and brewing. What function do they serve? How do they perform their work?
• What are the different cells found in blood? What function does each kind of cell perform for the body?
• What are the four blood types found in humans? What is an Rh factor? Which blood type is the most common? Which is the least common? What is an allele?
• What is lightening? What conditions in the atmosphere are necessary for it to form? Why is it so dangerous?
• What is wind? What causes it to move across the face of the earth?
These are just a few of the many questions you can base your middle school science fair projects on. Choosing a category of interest by which to base your hypothesis is a good starting point. Finding a topic interesting to you is the key to a winning science
Making Waves With Sound
Hey kids, have you ever wondered why you hear thunder after you see lightning? Or why the horn on a car sounds different when it's coming toward you than when it's moving away? Or why things sound different under water? It all has to do with sound waves!
Anything that vibrates makes a sound. Try this: put your hand gently against your throat and hum. Can you feel those vibrations? That's your voice!
The faster something vibrates, the higher the sound is. And the bigger the vibrations, the louder the sound is. When something vibrates, it smashes into the particles of air, liquid, or solid around it. These particles then smash into the particles next to them, and send the sound along in a wave.
You can see the way sound travels by filling up a tub or sink with water. Put your hand in the water and give it a quick wave. See how the wave your hand made travels through the water? Sound travels in just the same way!
Sound also travels differently depending on what it's moving through. If you had a microscope more powerful than anything on the planet, you would be able to see that everything around us is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms in a gas, like air, are far apart and whizzing around. The atoms in a liquid are closer together, but slosh past each other. The atoms in a solid are packed tightly together and locked into one shape.
When sound waves travel through air, the atoms are spaced so far apart that it's hard for one group of atoms to reach the next group to pass the sound wave along. Sound waves in air fade away very fast.
Because the atoms in liquid are much closer together, it's much easier for them to bump into each other and pass the sound wave along. But the best thing for sending sound waves along is a solid. Have you ever seen a movie where someone puts their ear to the ground to see if someone is following them? That's because solid rock carries sounds faster and farther than air!
You can try this experiment with a friend. Find a long metal fence, and stand at either end of it. Put your ear to the fence, and have your friend tap the other end with a rock or stick. You should be able to hear the sound twice - once through the fence, and again through the air!
You can also hear that sounds are much louder in solids than in air. That's why spies in movies will listen to a conversation though a wall by putting their ear against a glass. The solid glass makes the sound louder!
You can have some learning fun of your own with this simple experiment: Get in a bathtub (or something you can swim in), and tap the side of the tub with something hard. Then put your head underwater and tap again. The sound should be louder in the water! Now put your ear against the side of the tub and tap a third time. The sound will be even louder!
So remember next time you're dancing to your favourite songs to take a look at the speakers and watch the vibrations. Those simple smashing atoms can make some really amazing beats!
Discover more kids science articles, look up amazing fun facts, do animated science quizzes with talking characters, meet friends in virtual worlds, play games and do fun science activities at Science Score - the world's most fun online elearning product for kids.
Anything that vibrates makes a sound. Try this: put your hand gently against your throat and hum. Can you feel those vibrations? That's your voice!
The faster something vibrates, the higher the sound is. And the bigger the vibrations, the louder the sound is. When something vibrates, it smashes into the particles of air, liquid, or solid around it. These particles then smash into the particles next to them, and send the sound along in a wave.
You can see the way sound travels by filling up a tub or sink with water. Put your hand in the water and give it a quick wave. See how the wave your hand made travels through the water? Sound travels in just the same way!
Sound also travels differently depending on what it's moving through. If you had a microscope more powerful than anything on the planet, you would be able to see that everything around us is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms in a gas, like air, are far apart and whizzing around. The atoms in a liquid are closer together, but slosh past each other. The atoms in a solid are packed tightly together and locked into one shape.
When sound waves travel through air, the atoms are spaced so far apart that it's hard for one group of atoms to reach the next group to pass the sound wave along. Sound waves in air fade away very fast.
Because the atoms in liquid are much closer together, it's much easier for them to bump into each other and pass the sound wave along. But the best thing for sending sound waves along is a solid. Have you ever seen a movie where someone puts their ear to the ground to see if someone is following them? That's because solid rock carries sounds faster and farther than air!
You can try this experiment with a friend. Find a long metal fence, and stand at either end of it. Put your ear to the fence, and have your friend tap the other end with a rock or stick. You should be able to hear the sound twice - once through the fence, and again through the air!
You can also hear that sounds are much louder in solids than in air. That's why spies in movies will listen to a conversation though a wall by putting their ear against a glass. The solid glass makes the sound louder!
You can have some learning fun of your own with this simple experiment: Get in a bathtub (or something you can swim in), and tap the side of the tub with something hard. Then put your head underwater and tap again. The sound should be louder in the water! Now put your ear against the side of the tub and tap a third time. The sound will be even louder!
So remember next time you're dancing to your favourite songs to take a look at the speakers and watch the vibrations. Those simple smashing atoms can make some really amazing beats!
Discover more kids science articles, look up amazing fun facts, do animated science quizzes with talking characters, meet friends in virtual worlds, play games and do fun science activities at Science Score - the world's most fun online elearning product for kids.
Time, Consciousness, and Modern Physics
The message from Quantum Mechanics is very clear: man and nature are intimately connected in mutual participation. Man's presence is in fact indispensable when it comes to the existence of natural phenomena and there is no way to interpret quantum theory without encountering consciousness. All this runs counter to our ordinary experience of the world, which is still that of Galileo and Newton. We still see the world as existing "out there", quite separate from us and with a separate history of its own. This separate history goes back to the beginning of the planet, when it was formed between four and five billion years ago. At a very late period in this history man appeared and took his place in the unfolding drama, but there is no evidence that this appearance in its early stages caused any changes in the drama of nature. It is only in the last few hundred years, as far as we know, that man has become powerful enough to disturb the processes and the balance of nature. This disturbance is caused by what he does not by what he is.
This view of the relationship between man and nature can no longer be defended by science. If man is now considered to participate in natural processes, even to the extent of causing their existence, the whole past history of the earth before the advent of man must come under new scrutiny. Evolutionary theory requires very long periods of time for changes to take place, such as adapting the bodies of aquatic animals to life on land. The processes involve millions of largely undisturbed years, where very small, incremental changes can gradually add up to major changes in the evolutionary ladder of being. That is the view of traditional science, based on classical Newtonian physics. If this is now no longer valid and we must take man into consideration when it comes to natural processes, we will have to look at how man has perceived earth's history from his own point of view. It is true that man cannot look very far into the past of the planet, but the little he can see does not indicate vast stretches of time where very little happens and the evolutionary process is allowed to operate undisturbed. What man has any knowledge of regarding the past of the earth indicates great drama and upheaval in a very short period of time, speaking in terms of evolutionary time.
It seems that even the few thousand years that we can look at of the earth's history are filled with sudden changes and catastrophes. The mammoths that were dug out of the frozen tundra of Siberia were so well preserved that their last meal, which they were in the process of eating when they were struck down, was seen to consist of semi-tropical herbs and grasses. To instantly deep-freeze a very large animal, covered with thick fur, so that there is still identifiable meat on the bones some 10,000 years later, would require a process of nature which can only be guessed at, perhaps a sudden reversal of the poles. Whatever it was, it was very sudden and catastrophic. The same can be said of the universal legends of the Flood: whatever it was and whenever it really took place, it was something very sudden and catastrophic. The latest ice age, apparently one of several in our recent past, represents another sudden change in climate, flora and fauna.
The times involved in all these happenings is also very short, compared to what the evolutionary processes require. There were several early cultures that studied the stars and felt that there was some connection between human fate and history and the cyclic movements they could perceive in the heavens. The longest of these cycles was the time it took for the equinox to move westward along the ecliptic through the entire zodiac circle of fixed stars, a process known as the precession of the equinoxes because it moved in a direction opposite that of the sun. This time is approximately 26,000 years, known as a Great or Platonic Year, a very time long indeed in human historical terms but a mere blink of the evolutionary time needed to make significant changes in animals.
Is there simply a huge disconnect between human cultural evolution and human biological evolution in terms of time? Human technology might be said to have started when someone found out that copper could be alloyed with tin to give bronze, about 6,000 BCE. Technology advanced to the point of being able to destroy the world in 1945, less than 8,000 years later. What are 8,000 years in biological evolutionary time? Did the human brain perhaps evolve more than anything else in these 8,000 years? In that case, what happened to this same brain during the vastly longer Stone Age that preceded the Bronze Age? But perhaps there is something else going on. Our own human tally of orally transmitted and written records, legends and race memories makes no mention of ever more primitive societies in remote pre-history. On the contrary, from Plato's Dialogues to the histories of Berosus and Alexander Polyhistor, such records are full of ancient, very advanced civilizations and races, as well as various cataclysms going back in time beyond Atlantis to the destruction of a great continent in the Pacific Ocean. But is would be very surprising if all these human legends and histories of higher civilizations and violent upheavals go back more than a single Great Year of 26,000 years. In terms of human culture, that is a very long time indeed. Whatever "really" happened in all those years, we can relate to the stories coming out of our prehistory, we feel some kinship, however remote, with Atlanteans and others beyond written records.
The same cannot be said about what science tells us. Hundreds of thousands of years, or even millions and tens of millions, are lengths of time we can do nothing with. What happened "really" during all these freezing wastes of time? Yes, we can speculate that a giant meteor, landing near the Yucatan peninsula, finished off the dinosaurs. But that was 65 million years ago! Our legends and prehistorical musings have more than one cataclysm within 26,000 years and huge changes in humanity's culture in less than 8,000 years. If the latest physics now tells us that the traditional scientific picture of an independently evolving nature cannot translate into an account of what really happened historically speaking, the question of time becomes important. Geological records must of course be accepted, but at the moment geological times and evolutionary times are on one scale and our cultural time is on another scale completely. We have always assumed that the geological and evolutionary time clock must be the right one because it was scientific, whereas our memories and legends were not. What we are now being told is that this history of the world, quite independent of mankind, is not a true picture of what actually happened, so that the time frame, associated with this picture, must also be newly suspect.
Our measurement of time depends on assumptions of invariability of certain natural processes, like the rate of radioactive decay and some microscopic vibrations. We assume that, because measurements of these processes give us very accurate time intervals today, that they have always done so in exactly the same way. We also assume that the land, the sea, the rocks, the air and so on that exist in our world today were fundamentally the same about 3.8 billion years ago, when our planet first cooled down enough to start supporting some very primitive life forms in the ancient seas of that remote epoch. It seems that there might be some fundamental flaw in this entire picture of our ancient earth history, that any events before the presence of man might not be so easy to visualize as we had thought.
Physics now tells us that what we perceive through our senses is a highly subjective appearance and not an independent, objective reality. Such appearances, on a large scale, obey the classical laws of physics. On a microscopic scale, they elude us to the extent that some physicists deny the reality of their existence. It looks as though we must now start also to rethink some conventional positions relating to the evolutionary history of the earth. If we could get into one of those Wellsian time machines and go backwards in time, we now know that we cannot expect to see the changing earth unfold before us, like watching it on film, where we are quite separate from the picture. We know that we participate in this picture at every turn. So what would we see, especially when we pass the point when man first made his appearance on earth? What would the dinosaurs "really" have looked like then, when they inhabited the earth, not as we now reconstruct them from their fossil bones? Such records changed together with everything else on earth from what they were 65 million years ago to what they are now. Today they form part of our present-day set of appearances, perceived with our present-day senses and interpreted by our present-day consciousness. All that was missing 65 million years ago. Something supported the dinosaurs and the rest of that world then, long before the existence of man, so that their entire world was objective to man, that is it did not depend on man's existence. That objectivity must clearly still exist today. The Southern Seas existed before Captain Cook was the first man to see them, or so we must suppose if we think rationally. But this objectivity is missing in science today. It certainly does not appear in quantum mechanics. Perhaps the time has come to take another look at this traditional Platonic principle.
Werner Thurau was born in December, 1927, in Havana, Cuba. In 1929, his family returned to his father's native Germany. He spent the entire 1930s in Berlin, but came to England in 1939 and was then further educated in that country, ending with an engineering degree from London University. His further career took him all over the world on technical projects, moving first to Mexico and then to the United States, where he lives now. At school in England, he was exposed early in life to the world of ideas. Some of his teachers were friends of C.S. Lewis and Lewis's Oxford group, the Inklings, and his father was a philosophical bookworm. Werner combined this background with a lifelong interest in physics, especially modern physics after it breached the atomic barrier. This interest extended to Galileo, the founder of our age, and what made him so different from others of his time, as well as to the effect physics has had on other related sciences, such as evolutionary theory (and its polar opposite, creationism). He came to see that the latest developments in physics bring in subjects not normally associated with a book on that science, such as consciousness, subjective, and objective reality concepts and even ethics.
This view of the relationship between man and nature can no longer be defended by science. If man is now considered to participate in natural processes, even to the extent of causing their existence, the whole past history of the earth before the advent of man must come under new scrutiny. Evolutionary theory requires very long periods of time for changes to take place, such as adapting the bodies of aquatic animals to life on land. The processes involve millions of largely undisturbed years, where very small, incremental changes can gradually add up to major changes in the evolutionary ladder of being. That is the view of traditional science, based on classical Newtonian physics. If this is now no longer valid and we must take man into consideration when it comes to natural processes, we will have to look at how man has perceived earth's history from his own point of view. It is true that man cannot look very far into the past of the planet, but the little he can see does not indicate vast stretches of time where very little happens and the evolutionary process is allowed to operate undisturbed. What man has any knowledge of regarding the past of the earth indicates great drama and upheaval in a very short period of time, speaking in terms of evolutionary time.
It seems that even the few thousand years that we can look at of the earth's history are filled with sudden changes and catastrophes. The mammoths that were dug out of the frozen tundra of Siberia were so well preserved that their last meal, which they were in the process of eating when they were struck down, was seen to consist of semi-tropical herbs and grasses. To instantly deep-freeze a very large animal, covered with thick fur, so that there is still identifiable meat on the bones some 10,000 years later, would require a process of nature which can only be guessed at, perhaps a sudden reversal of the poles. Whatever it was, it was very sudden and catastrophic. The same can be said of the universal legends of the Flood: whatever it was and whenever it really took place, it was something very sudden and catastrophic. The latest ice age, apparently one of several in our recent past, represents another sudden change in climate, flora and fauna.
The times involved in all these happenings is also very short, compared to what the evolutionary processes require. There were several early cultures that studied the stars and felt that there was some connection between human fate and history and the cyclic movements they could perceive in the heavens. The longest of these cycles was the time it took for the equinox to move westward along the ecliptic through the entire zodiac circle of fixed stars, a process known as the precession of the equinoxes because it moved in a direction opposite that of the sun. This time is approximately 26,000 years, known as a Great or Platonic Year, a very time long indeed in human historical terms but a mere blink of the evolutionary time needed to make significant changes in animals.
Is there simply a huge disconnect between human cultural evolution and human biological evolution in terms of time? Human technology might be said to have started when someone found out that copper could be alloyed with tin to give bronze, about 6,000 BCE. Technology advanced to the point of being able to destroy the world in 1945, less than 8,000 years later. What are 8,000 years in biological evolutionary time? Did the human brain perhaps evolve more than anything else in these 8,000 years? In that case, what happened to this same brain during the vastly longer Stone Age that preceded the Bronze Age? But perhaps there is something else going on. Our own human tally of orally transmitted and written records, legends and race memories makes no mention of ever more primitive societies in remote pre-history. On the contrary, from Plato's Dialogues to the histories of Berosus and Alexander Polyhistor, such records are full of ancient, very advanced civilizations and races, as well as various cataclysms going back in time beyond Atlantis to the destruction of a great continent in the Pacific Ocean. But is would be very surprising if all these human legends and histories of higher civilizations and violent upheavals go back more than a single Great Year of 26,000 years. In terms of human culture, that is a very long time indeed. Whatever "really" happened in all those years, we can relate to the stories coming out of our prehistory, we feel some kinship, however remote, with Atlanteans and others beyond written records.
The same cannot be said about what science tells us. Hundreds of thousands of years, or even millions and tens of millions, are lengths of time we can do nothing with. What happened "really" during all these freezing wastes of time? Yes, we can speculate that a giant meteor, landing near the Yucatan peninsula, finished off the dinosaurs. But that was 65 million years ago! Our legends and prehistorical musings have more than one cataclysm within 26,000 years and huge changes in humanity's culture in less than 8,000 years. If the latest physics now tells us that the traditional scientific picture of an independently evolving nature cannot translate into an account of what really happened historically speaking, the question of time becomes important. Geological records must of course be accepted, but at the moment geological times and evolutionary times are on one scale and our cultural time is on another scale completely. We have always assumed that the geological and evolutionary time clock must be the right one because it was scientific, whereas our memories and legends were not. What we are now being told is that this history of the world, quite independent of mankind, is not a true picture of what actually happened, so that the time frame, associated with this picture, must also be newly suspect.
Our measurement of time depends on assumptions of invariability of certain natural processes, like the rate of radioactive decay and some microscopic vibrations. We assume that, because measurements of these processes give us very accurate time intervals today, that they have always done so in exactly the same way. We also assume that the land, the sea, the rocks, the air and so on that exist in our world today were fundamentally the same about 3.8 billion years ago, when our planet first cooled down enough to start supporting some very primitive life forms in the ancient seas of that remote epoch. It seems that there might be some fundamental flaw in this entire picture of our ancient earth history, that any events before the presence of man might not be so easy to visualize as we had thought.
Physics now tells us that what we perceive through our senses is a highly subjective appearance and not an independent, objective reality. Such appearances, on a large scale, obey the classical laws of physics. On a microscopic scale, they elude us to the extent that some physicists deny the reality of their existence. It looks as though we must now start also to rethink some conventional positions relating to the evolutionary history of the earth. If we could get into one of those Wellsian time machines and go backwards in time, we now know that we cannot expect to see the changing earth unfold before us, like watching it on film, where we are quite separate from the picture. We know that we participate in this picture at every turn. So what would we see, especially when we pass the point when man first made his appearance on earth? What would the dinosaurs "really" have looked like then, when they inhabited the earth, not as we now reconstruct them from their fossil bones? Such records changed together with everything else on earth from what they were 65 million years ago to what they are now. Today they form part of our present-day set of appearances, perceived with our present-day senses and interpreted by our present-day consciousness. All that was missing 65 million years ago. Something supported the dinosaurs and the rest of that world then, long before the existence of man, so that their entire world was objective to man, that is it did not depend on man's existence. That objectivity must clearly still exist today. The Southern Seas existed before Captain Cook was the first man to see them, or so we must suppose if we think rationally. But this objectivity is missing in science today. It certainly does not appear in quantum mechanics. Perhaps the time has come to take another look at this traditional Platonic principle.
Werner Thurau was born in December, 1927, in Havana, Cuba. In 1929, his family returned to his father's native Germany. He spent the entire 1930s in Berlin, but came to England in 1939 and was then further educated in that country, ending with an engineering degree from London University. His further career took him all over the world on technical projects, moving first to Mexico and then to the United States, where he lives now. At school in England, he was exposed early in life to the world of ideas. Some of his teachers were friends of C.S. Lewis and Lewis's Oxford group, the Inklings, and his father was a philosophical bookworm. Werner combined this background with a lifelong interest in physics, especially modern physics after it breached the atomic barrier. This interest extended to Galileo, the founder of our age, and what made him so different from others of his time, as well as to the effect physics has had on other related sciences, such as evolutionary theory (and its polar opposite, creationism). He came to see that the latest developments in physics bring in subjects not normally associated with a book on that science, such as consciousness, subjective, and objective reality concepts and even ethics.
Playing With Electricity - Fun Experiments to Do at Home
Everyone knows it's dangerous to play with electricity. If a strong enough electrical current runs through your body, it can overpower the electrical messages your body sends to your brain, or even stop your heart! Fortunately, kid's science has some easy elementary science experiments you can do that are safe to try at home.
Experiment 1: Dancing dots
1. Tear up a few pieces of paper (tissue paper works best) into little dots and spread them out in a pile.
2. Wet a plastic comb or brush and run it several times through your hair.
3. Bring the comb close to the paper dots. If you brushed your hair enough, the dots should dance!
What's Happening?
Everything in the world, including your hair, is made up of tiny particles called atoms. An atom is made up of a hard clump of positive (+) protons, surrounded by whizzing negative (-) electrons. There are usually the same number of protons and electrons in an atom, so they cancel each other out.
When you run the comb through your hair, the comb starts grabbing electrons from the atoms in your hair.
When there are more electrons than protons on the comb, you create a negative electrical charge.
The paper dots are attracted to the negative charge, and the paper is light enough that you can use the comb to pick them up.
Try touching the comb with a finger of your other hand. What happens? The dots all fall off! This is because the extra electrons in the comb move into your finger. If there's no negative charge on the comb anymore, there's nothing to hold the dots on, and they will fall.
Experiment 2: Water Wizard
1. Turn on a faucet until you have a very thin stream of water. The thinner the better.
2. Run a plastic comb through your hair several times.
3. Hold the comb near the water. The water should bend toward it!
What's Happening?
The neutral particles in the water are attracted to the negative charge you built up on the comb.
Experiment 3: Build a Battery
This experiment is a little more complicated, but the things you need should be available at a hardware store. You will need:
citrus fruit (like oranges or lemons) or a potato
something copper (like a nail or coin or metal strip)
a piece of zinc (about the same size as your piece of copper)
2 wires with crocodile clamps
a small LED light or a voltmeter
1. Press down on the fruit and roll it around on a hard surface to break open the juice inside.
2. Get an adult to help you make a small cut into the skin of the fruit and push the copper in. Leave the end of it sticking out.
3. Make a small cut into the other side of the fruit and push the zinc in.
4. Connect the end of your first wire to the copper, and the end of your second wire to the zinc.
5. Connect the other ends of both wires to the LED or voltmeter. You should see an electric charge!
What's Happening?
Combining metal with acid (like lemon juice) causes a chemical reaction that creates positive and negative particles around each piece of metal. The negative particles will move through the wires from one piece of metal to the other, which causes an electric current. If the reaction is strong enough, it can even power a light bulb!
Experiment 1: Dancing dots
1. Tear up a few pieces of paper (tissue paper works best) into little dots and spread them out in a pile.
2. Wet a plastic comb or brush and run it several times through your hair.
3. Bring the comb close to the paper dots. If you brushed your hair enough, the dots should dance!
What's Happening?
Everything in the world, including your hair, is made up of tiny particles called atoms. An atom is made up of a hard clump of positive (+) protons, surrounded by whizzing negative (-) electrons. There are usually the same number of protons and electrons in an atom, so they cancel each other out.
When you run the comb through your hair, the comb starts grabbing electrons from the atoms in your hair.
When there are more electrons than protons on the comb, you create a negative electrical charge.
The paper dots are attracted to the negative charge, and the paper is light enough that you can use the comb to pick them up.
Try touching the comb with a finger of your other hand. What happens? The dots all fall off! This is because the extra electrons in the comb move into your finger. If there's no negative charge on the comb anymore, there's nothing to hold the dots on, and they will fall.
Experiment 2: Water Wizard
1. Turn on a faucet until you have a very thin stream of water. The thinner the better.
2. Run a plastic comb through your hair several times.
3. Hold the comb near the water. The water should bend toward it!
What's Happening?
The neutral particles in the water are attracted to the negative charge you built up on the comb.
Experiment 3: Build a Battery
This experiment is a little more complicated, but the things you need should be available at a hardware store. You will need:
citrus fruit (like oranges or lemons) or a potato
something copper (like a nail or coin or metal strip)
a piece of zinc (about the same size as your piece of copper)
2 wires with crocodile clamps
a small LED light or a voltmeter
1. Press down on the fruit and roll it around on a hard surface to break open the juice inside.
2. Get an adult to help you make a small cut into the skin of the fruit and push the copper in. Leave the end of it sticking out.
3. Make a small cut into the other side of the fruit and push the zinc in.
4. Connect the end of your first wire to the copper, and the end of your second wire to the zinc.
5. Connect the other ends of both wires to the LED or voltmeter. You should see an electric charge!
What's Happening?
Combining metal with acid (like lemon juice) causes a chemical reaction that creates positive and negative particles around each piece of metal. The negative particles will move through the wires from one piece of metal to the other, which causes an electric current. If the reaction is strong enough, it can even power a light bulb!
Cooking Up Chemistry in the Kitchen
Hey kids, when most people hear the word "chemistry", they think of creepy laboratories with bubbling beakers of toxic goo. But chemistry can happen any time two different things react together to make something new, and there are fun science experiments that you can do right in your kitchen!
Experiment 1: Magic Mud
All you need for this experiment is some cornstarch, water, and a little bit of food colouring to show it off.
1. Add 5 tablespoons of cornstarch to a bowl. Make sure you use something to scrape off the extra starch so you have a nice level spoonful.
2. Add 3 tablespoons of water to the bowl.
3. Add 3 drops of food colouring.
4. Stir the mixture.
This mixture should be hard to stir unless you stir very, very slowly. If it seems runny, add a few pinches more cornstarch. If it seems really dry, add a bit more water.
Now try squeezing a little bit of your magic mud between your fingers and rolling it into a ball. Then open your hand and watch what happens. Poke the top of your magic mud quickly, and your finger will bounce off. But if you sink your finger in slowly, the mud will swallow it up! It acts like a liquid and a solid!
For a real adventure, try using the same measurements (5 parts cornstarch, 3 parts water) to make up a really big batch in a large pan, or even a kids' swimming pool! If you run fast enough, you can actually run across the top of the magic mud. Just don't slow down, or you'll find yourself sinking into the goo!
Experiment 2: The Incredible Giant Hand
For this experiment, you will need baking soda, vinegar, and a rubber glove. If you don't have one, you could use a balloon to make The Incredible Giant Head.
1. Use a marker to draw hair on the rubber glove (or a face on the balloon).
2. Carefully add a few spoonfuls of baking soda to the glove.
3. Pour some vinegar into the glove.
4. Tie the glove closed, like you would a balloon. Shake it around a bit.
Now watch what happens. The hand (or head) will grow!
When the solid baking soda and the liquid vinegar meet, they react to form a gas called carbon dioxide.
They make so much of it that it will blow up your balloon for you.
Experiment 3: Acid or Alkali
For this experiment, you need some beetroot or red cabbage. It also provides you with a tasty snack.
1. Have an adult help you boil the cabbage or beetroot until the water changes colour.
2. Collect some of the coloured water.
Scientists use something called pH indicator to measure how acid or alkali something is. Different acids and alkalis will make the indicator change different colours.
You've just made pH indicator. Have an adult help you test small amounts of your coloured water with acids and alkalis around the house. Vinegar, juice, household cleaners, antacid tablets, and baking soda are good places to start.
The more acidic something is, the lower the pH number. See if you can figure out the pH of your test subjects:
1ph Colour
2 red (very acidic)
4 purple
6 violet
8 blue
10 blue-green
12 yellow-green (very alkali)
And the best part about this experiment is that you can eat the vegetables you cooked! Now that's fun science!
Experiment 1: Magic Mud
All you need for this experiment is some cornstarch, water, and a little bit of food colouring to show it off.
1. Add 5 tablespoons of cornstarch to a bowl. Make sure you use something to scrape off the extra starch so you have a nice level spoonful.
2. Add 3 tablespoons of water to the bowl.
3. Add 3 drops of food colouring.
4. Stir the mixture.
This mixture should be hard to stir unless you stir very, very slowly. If it seems runny, add a few pinches more cornstarch. If it seems really dry, add a bit more water.
Now try squeezing a little bit of your magic mud between your fingers and rolling it into a ball. Then open your hand and watch what happens. Poke the top of your magic mud quickly, and your finger will bounce off. But if you sink your finger in slowly, the mud will swallow it up! It acts like a liquid and a solid!
For a real adventure, try using the same measurements (5 parts cornstarch, 3 parts water) to make up a really big batch in a large pan, or even a kids' swimming pool! If you run fast enough, you can actually run across the top of the magic mud. Just don't slow down, or you'll find yourself sinking into the goo!
Experiment 2: The Incredible Giant Hand
For this experiment, you will need baking soda, vinegar, and a rubber glove. If you don't have one, you could use a balloon to make The Incredible Giant Head.
1. Use a marker to draw hair on the rubber glove (or a face on the balloon).
2. Carefully add a few spoonfuls of baking soda to the glove.
3. Pour some vinegar into the glove.
4. Tie the glove closed, like you would a balloon. Shake it around a bit.
Now watch what happens. The hand (or head) will grow!
When the solid baking soda and the liquid vinegar meet, they react to form a gas called carbon dioxide.
They make so much of it that it will blow up your balloon for you.
Experiment 3: Acid or Alkali
For this experiment, you need some beetroot or red cabbage. It also provides you with a tasty snack.
1. Have an adult help you boil the cabbage or beetroot until the water changes colour.
2. Collect some of the coloured water.
Scientists use something called pH indicator to measure how acid or alkali something is. Different acids and alkalis will make the indicator change different colours.
You've just made pH indicator. Have an adult help you test small amounts of your coloured water with acids and alkalis around the house. Vinegar, juice, household cleaners, antacid tablets, and baking soda are good places to start.
The more acidic something is, the lower the pH number. See if you can figure out the pH of your test subjects:
1ph Colour
2 red (very acidic)
4 purple
6 violet
8 blue
10 blue-green
12 yellow-green (very alkali)
And the best part about this experiment is that you can eat the vegetables you cooked! Now that's fun science!
Confined in Chaos, But Not One With It
Have you ever experienced complete chaos? If your answer is yes, then you might wish to reconsider that answer. For instance, complete chaos would have your entire body and every molecule in it going every which way and thus, you'd probably cease to exist. Well, that would be being one with complete chaos from a scientific definition, but what about in our lives, what is chaos? Some say, they cannot define it, but they know it when they see it.
Not long ago, I mentioned to an acquaintance that I'd experienced chaos a couple of times in my life, and maybe you can indeed relate to this. In surfing when you fall off the board on a large wave, the surf tumbles you like a rag doll, and you often wonder for a few minutes, is this what it's like to drown or die; scary stuff and a terrorizing few minutes indeed. Of course, once you pop back up out on the surface, all is well and all you can say is wow.
Let me tell you of another time when I experienced chaos. A friend who was an aircraft aerobatic champion took me up for a Lomcevak, a tumbling maneuver that has the aircraft literally falling through the air. Complete chaos is all you can think while you are experiencing it all.
Still, my friend asks me; Were you one with chaos, were you chaos yourself, or were you merely observing chaos around you. Ah ha, very good question, and depending on your use of definitions, the answer to any one of those questions could indeed be; Yes!
Not long ago, I mentioned to an acquaintance that I'd experienced chaos a couple of times in my life, and maybe you can indeed relate to this. In surfing when you fall off the board on a large wave, the surf tumbles you like a rag doll, and you often wonder for a few minutes, is this what it's like to drown or die; scary stuff and a terrorizing few minutes indeed. Of course, once you pop back up out on the surface, all is well and all you can say is wow.
Let me tell you of another time when I experienced chaos. A friend who was an aircraft aerobatic champion took me up for a Lomcevak, a tumbling maneuver that has the aircraft literally falling through the air. Complete chaos is all you can think while you are experiencing it all.
Still, my friend asks me; Were you one with chaos, were you chaos yourself, or were you merely observing chaos around you. Ah ha, very good question, and depending on your use of definitions, the answer to any one of those questions could indeed be; Yes!
Geothermal Power
The earth contains a lot of energy in the form of heat. This energy is called geothermal energy, "geo" meaning earth and "thermal" meaning heat. People should be looking for more renewable energy resources throughout the world because of the shortage of fossil fuels and the harm these fuels do to the environment.
Geothermal power is the biggest clean and renewable energy resource on earth. It does not cause pollution because no fuel is burned and no harmful chemicals are released into the environment. The amount of energy stored as geothermal energy in the earth is so huge that humans can not possibly use it up - not even in millions of years. Even if this energy resource were to get depleted the suns energy that always shines on the earth just gets absorbed through the ground and replaces it. At the moment we even have a bit too much heat due to global warming so it might be quite a good idea to use some of it.
People have been using geothermal power for almost 100 years now. The first geothermal power plant was in Italy and soon others were built in countries like Iceland, Turkey New Zealand and the United States. At present only a small percentage of electricity is derived from geothermal energy (5% in the US and even less worldwide). The countries that produce the highest percentage of geothermal power are Iceland and EL Salvador with an average of 25%. There is huge potential in many countries to use more geothermal energy. Especially Australia, there are plans to build geothermal power plants in Australia.
There are three main types of geothermal power plants all of which use steam to drive turbans. As technology progresses, it will become easier and more cost effective for governments to install geothermal power plants.
According to a 2005 ENEL report, geothermal power supplies 8900 MW to 24 countries worldwide. Geothermal power today meets the total electricity needs of some 60 million people worldwide - roughly the population of the United Kingdom.
Since 2000, geothermal generation has tripled in France, Russia, and Kenya. Three new countries-Austria, Germany, and Papua New Guinea-have been added to the list of those producing power. Countries as diverse as the Philippines, Iceland, and El Salvador generate an average of 25 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources, and geothermal serves 30 percent of Tibet's energy needs. The United States continues to produce more geothermal electricity than any other country, comprising some 32 percent of the world total.
Geothermal power is the biggest clean and renewable energy resource on earth. It does not cause pollution because no fuel is burned and no harmful chemicals are released into the environment. The amount of energy stored as geothermal energy in the earth is so huge that humans can not possibly use it up - not even in millions of years. Even if this energy resource were to get depleted the suns energy that always shines on the earth just gets absorbed through the ground and replaces it. At the moment we even have a bit too much heat due to global warming so it might be quite a good idea to use some of it.
People have been using geothermal power for almost 100 years now. The first geothermal power plant was in Italy and soon others were built in countries like Iceland, Turkey New Zealand and the United States. At present only a small percentage of electricity is derived from geothermal energy (5% in the US and even less worldwide). The countries that produce the highest percentage of geothermal power are Iceland and EL Salvador with an average of 25%. There is huge potential in many countries to use more geothermal energy. Especially Australia, there are plans to build geothermal power plants in Australia.
There are three main types of geothermal power plants all of which use steam to drive turbans. As technology progresses, it will become easier and more cost effective for governments to install geothermal power plants.
According to a 2005 ENEL report, geothermal power supplies 8900 MW to 24 countries worldwide. Geothermal power today meets the total electricity needs of some 60 million people worldwide - roughly the population of the United Kingdom.
Since 2000, geothermal generation has tripled in France, Russia, and Kenya. Three new countries-Austria, Germany, and Papua New Guinea-have been added to the list of those producing power. Countries as diverse as the Philippines, Iceland, and El Salvador generate an average of 25 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources, and geothermal serves 30 percent of Tibet's energy needs. The United States continues to produce more geothermal electricity than any other country, comprising some 32 percent of the world total.
Polarizing Microscope and Applications
A polarizing microscope is a special kind of microscope that utilizes two polarizing lens to acquire certain optical data from the specimen. The polarizing microscope is used extensively in the field of optical mineralogy which supports such applications as geology, asbestos testing, and forensic science. Often those working in different fields will sometimes refer to the polarizing microscope by different names such as geology microscope, petrographic microscope, pol microscope, and PLM (polarized light microscope.)
The key difference between the polarizing microscope and a standard compound microscope is the addition of a fixed polarizer between the light source and the specimen and the addition of an adjustable polarizer between the objective and the eyepieces. The 2nd polarizer is called the "analyzer" and usually can insert in and out on a rotating piece in the neck of the microscope. Other common accessories include a rotating stage and insertable retardation plates made from gypsum or quartz.
With these additional elements, the this microscope can acquire optical data from a specimen that no other microscope can. The key optical information available includes refractive index, birefringence, sign of elongation, pleochroism, and angle of extinction, all of which provide clues to the crystallography of the material that is being investigated.
The first uses of these kinds of microscopes over one hundred years ago was the identification of minerals in geology. In addition, the most common form of lab analysis to test for asbestos is performed with a polarizing microscope. Because of the their ability to provide optical data, these kind of microscopes are very commonly used in forensic science where the identification of unknown materials is a routine part of the job. Some of the first evidence disputing the claimed age of the so-called "Shroud of Turin" was determined by analysis of pigments using a polarized light microscope.
The polarizing microscope is a very versatile and powerful instrument in the identification of materials. It is a key tool in several scientific fields, and can sometimes be the best option over more expensive technologies. For example, in routine asbestos analysis the polarizing microscope was determined to be more accurate and much more cost effective than the other high-tech options that were first investigated, such as x-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. It is a powerful tool with many applications.
The key difference between the polarizing microscope and a standard compound microscope is the addition of a fixed polarizer between the light source and the specimen and the addition of an adjustable polarizer between the objective and the eyepieces. The 2nd polarizer is called the "analyzer" and usually can insert in and out on a rotating piece in the neck of the microscope. Other common accessories include a rotating stage and insertable retardation plates made from gypsum or quartz.
With these additional elements, the this microscope can acquire optical data from a specimen that no other microscope can. The key optical information available includes refractive index, birefringence, sign of elongation, pleochroism, and angle of extinction, all of which provide clues to the crystallography of the material that is being investigated.
The first uses of these kinds of microscopes over one hundred years ago was the identification of minerals in geology. In addition, the most common form of lab analysis to test for asbestos is performed with a polarizing microscope. Because of the their ability to provide optical data, these kind of microscopes are very commonly used in forensic science where the identification of unknown materials is a routine part of the job. Some of the first evidence disputing the claimed age of the so-called "Shroud of Turin" was determined by analysis of pigments using a polarized light microscope.
The polarizing microscope is a very versatile and powerful instrument in the identification of materials. It is a key tool in several scientific fields, and can sometimes be the best option over more expensive technologies. For example, in routine asbestos analysis the polarizing microscope was determined to be more accurate and much more cost effective than the other high-tech options that were first investigated, such as x-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. It is a powerful tool with many applications.
Art and Science in Logistics Education - A Balancing Act
I had the privilege of being a reader on MAJ Jason Murphy's master's thesis from 2008, an inquiry into the art and science of sustainment and sustainment education. Throughout his career, MAJ Murphy had held every critical assignment you could want a tactical logistician to hold, and he did very well in them. He attended every school and then some, having earned his Masters in Logistics Science in conjunction with his graduation from Logistics Executive Development course. In short, he was as skilled int he science of logitics as you could reasonably hope based on his education, experience and aptitude.
Yet, when he found himself in Afghanistan, he quickly discovered that the challenges he faced extended immediately beyond the boundaries of pure science and calculation. In order to make things work at the operational level, he had to navigate the uncharted waters of the art of sustainment, incorporating the richly nuanced human dimension. He found that success usually came from an artful application of solutions tailored to a dynamic chaotic situation, one in which he found himself constantly surfing on waves of change. In time he developed a feel for the flow, and an intuition for what might work, and an innate appreciation for risk and risk management.
He came to CGSC and found more science than art in our curriculum and decided to make a more formal study of the situation, powered by the memory of his cognitive dissonance. Over the course of his year in SAMS he developed a number of insights into the relationship between art and science, comprising equal measures of tension, friction and mutual support. we've taken his insights to heart and engaged in deep reflection into how to accommodate a balanced treatment of sustainment as both art and science, working within the iron constraints of curriculum. This is work still in progress, and a work that ought to always be in progress, and in conjunction with other Army schools on our left and right, informed by the needs as reported by field commanders and our students upon arrival. Adapting is like systems thinking: once you start, you never stop.
Yet, when he found himself in Afghanistan, he quickly discovered that the challenges he faced extended immediately beyond the boundaries of pure science and calculation. In order to make things work at the operational level, he had to navigate the uncharted waters of the art of sustainment, incorporating the richly nuanced human dimension. He found that success usually came from an artful application of solutions tailored to a dynamic chaotic situation, one in which he found himself constantly surfing on waves of change. In time he developed a feel for the flow, and an intuition for what might work, and an innate appreciation for risk and risk management.
He came to CGSC and found more science than art in our curriculum and decided to make a more formal study of the situation, powered by the memory of his cognitive dissonance. Over the course of his year in SAMS he developed a number of insights into the relationship between art and science, comprising equal measures of tension, friction and mutual support. we've taken his insights to heart and engaged in deep reflection into how to accommodate a balanced treatment of sustainment as both art and science, working within the iron constraints of curriculum. This is work still in progress, and a work that ought to always be in progress, and in conjunction with other Army schools on our left and right, informed by the needs as reported by field commanders and our students upon arrival. Adapting is like systems thinking: once you start, you never stop.
The Origin's 150th Anniversary - But Darwin's Theory Still Not Beyond the Reach of Reasonable Doubt
The vast majority of data presented as evidence for the Darwin's Theory of Evolution, including that in The Origin, is irrelevant to his primary assertion, namely that of great but gradual organic changes via vast sequences of intermediate life forms.
How vast? As Darwin puts it: '...the number of intermediate and transitional links, between all living and extinct species, must have been inconceivably great. But assuredly, if this theory be true, then such have lived upon this earth.' (The Origin Of Species, 1859).
If such inconceivably great numbers of intermediate and transitional links have lived upon this earth, then intermediate sequential life forms, such as those linking the distinct vertebrate groups (fish, reptiles etc) might have left direct evidence of their once-existence in sequences of living descendants and/or in sequences of fossil remains.
Regarding living sequences--Molecular Biologist Michael Denton, in his 1985 book 'Evolution - A Theory In Crisis' says that '...out of all the millions of living species known, only a handful can be considered to be in any sense intermediate between other well-defined types' - i.e. no living sequences exist. This was the case in Darwin's day, and has remained true for 150 years, in spite of the many, many new species discovered in that time.
Regarding fossils sequences--An extract from the Guardian Weekly, 26 Nov 1978, entitled 'Missing, Believed Non-Existent' says that '...the smooth transition from one form of life to another is...(Dr. Niles Eldredge) says, not borne out by the facts... If life had evolved...little by little...then one would expect to find fossils of transitional creatures which were a bit like what came before them and a bit like what came after. But no one has yet found any evidence of such transitional creatures. This oddity has been attributed to gaps in the fossil record which gradualists expected to fill when rock strata of the proper age had been found. In the last decade, however, geologists have found rock layers of all divisions of the last 500 million years, and no transitional forms were found in them.'
In 1972 Eldredge and Gould proposed a theory called Punctuated Equilibrium - its purpose was to try to account for the gaps in the fossil record. Whether one finds it convincing or not, the very need to produce such a theory confirms that the fossil gaps are a reality well known to palaeontologist, and not a fabrication of Darwin's detractors.
The lack of fossil sequences was certainly a matter of concern to Darwin - In The Origin, he wrote: 'Why does not every collection of fossil remains afford plain evidence of the gradation...of the forms of life?' Presumably he fully expected that in time such fossil evidence would be found to confirm his theory. However, 150 years on, and Darwin's question still stands as a direct challenge to his own theory of life on earth. He also said that the absence of intermediate sequences of fossils 'is probably the gravest and most obvious all the objections which may be urged against my views'. Most of the palaeontology that has ever been done has been done since Darwin wrote those words, and if the lack of fossil sequences was so grave in 1859, how much more magnified a threat to the credibility of his theory is their continuing absence 150 years later?
Darwinists will point to a handful of so-called 'missing-links' as examples of intermediate life forms - but these are stand-alone individuals of dubious status with no sequences leading to them or from them. If such individuals permit us to infer Darwin's massive sequences of organic change, then (to almost quote G K Chesterton) not only does a swallow make a summer - it makes a summerhouse as well!
The Darwinian Theory of Evolution is a theory like any other, namely 'a particular interpretation of particular data'. As such it can only stand or fall based upon the data and arguments relevant to it - and not upon any arbitrarily preferred belief about the nature of truth and reality (which is clearly a driving force behind its more aggressive historical and current apologists). And if one investigates beyond the material that is usually presented in school textbooks or in the media, it becomes apparent that Darwin's Theory OF Evolution has failed to get beyond the reach of reasonable doubt - even by its 150th anniversary.
How vast? As Darwin puts it: '...the number of intermediate and transitional links, between all living and extinct species, must have been inconceivably great. But assuredly, if this theory be true, then such have lived upon this earth.' (The Origin Of Species, 1859).
If such inconceivably great numbers of intermediate and transitional links have lived upon this earth, then intermediate sequential life forms, such as those linking the distinct vertebrate groups (fish, reptiles etc) might have left direct evidence of their once-existence in sequences of living descendants and/or in sequences of fossil remains.
Regarding living sequences--Molecular Biologist Michael Denton, in his 1985 book 'Evolution - A Theory In Crisis' says that '...out of all the millions of living species known, only a handful can be considered to be in any sense intermediate between other well-defined types' - i.e. no living sequences exist. This was the case in Darwin's day, and has remained true for 150 years, in spite of the many, many new species discovered in that time.
Regarding fossils sequences--An extract from the Guardian Weekly, 26 Nov 1978, entitled 'Missing, Believed Non-Existent' says that '...the smooth transition from one form of life to another is...(Dr. Niles Eldredge) says, not borne out by the facts... If life had evolved...little by little...then one would expect to find fossils of transitional creatures which were a bit like what came before them and a bit like what came after. But no one has yet found any evidence of such transitional creatures. This oddity has been attributed to gaps in the fossil record which gradualists expected to fill when rock strata of the proper age had been found. In the last decade, however, geologists have found rock layers of all divisions of the last 500 million years, and no transitional forms were found in them.'
In 1972 Eldredge and Gould proposed a theory called Punctuated Equilibrium - its purpose was to try to account for the gaps in the fossil record. Whether one finds it convincing or not, the very need to produce such a theory confirms that the fossil gaps are a reality well known to palaeontologist, and not a fabrication of Darwin's detractors.
The lack of fossil sequences was certainly a matter of concern to Darwin - In The Origin, he wrote: 'Why does not every collection of fossil remains afford plain evidence of the gradation...of the forms of life?' Presumably he fully expected that in time such fossil evidence would be found to confirm his theory. However, 150 years on, and Darwin's question still stands as a direct challenge to his own theory of life on earth. He also said that the absence of intermediate sequences of fossils 'is probably the gravest and most obvious all the objections which may be urged against my views'. Most of the palaeontology that has ever been done has been done since Darwin wrote those words, and if the lack of fossil sequences was so grave in 1859, how much more magnified a threat to the credibility of his theory is their continuing absence 150 years later?
Darwinists will point to a handful of so-called 'missing-links' as examples of intermediate life forms - but these are stand-alone individuals of dubious status with no sequences leading to them or from them. If such individuals permit us to infer Darwin's massive sequences of organic change, then (to almost quote G K Chesterton) not only does a swallow make a summer - it makes a summerhouse as well!
The Darwinian Theory of Evolution is a theory like any other, namely 'a particular interpretation of particular data'. As such it can only stand or fall based upon the data and arguments relevant to it - and not upon any arbitrarily preferred belief about the nature of truth and reality (which is clearly a driving force behind its more aggressive historical and current apologists). And if one investigates beyond the material that is usually presented in school textbooks or in the media, it becomes apparent that Darwin's Theory OF Evolution has failed to get beyond the reach of reasonable doubt - even by its 150th anniversary.
Zinc Anodes - Effective and Reliable Protection of Essential Metal Components
A zinc anode is an important metal for most industries whose operations bring contact with saltwater. The process of galvanic corrosion is a common type of deterioration that occurs in aquatic environment. This process should not be confused with electrolysis. Before we can appreciate the role of zinc anodes, a clear description of the process must be undertaken. This deterioration happens when two or more metallic materials establish electrical contact with each other in seawater. These metals are essentially turned into a battery and through this electrochemical process where electricity will pass through these metals.
One of those metals that make contact is turned into anode. The oxidization process that anodes go through is much faster than it shall have been if these metals are left alone. On the other hand, the other metallic material turns into cathode and the corrosion happens at a much lower rate than it shall have been if left alone. The main concern is not on the behavior of the metals when left alone in seawater but on the resulting corrosion of each metal when they make physical contact. Thus, a sacrificial metal is needed to correct the prevailing problem of corrosion.
This problematic condition plagues industries such as fishing, shipping and other types of industries that are constantly exposed to salt water. The use of sacrificial metals will prevent premature rusting of ship hulls, rails and steel tanks. This is mainly because this type of sacrificial metals rust faster compared to iron. This means that the former will corrode faster than the latter.
This method can also be adopted to increase the service life of crab traps. By using the sacrificial metal, the crab fishermen are able to protect their crab traps as they become the cathode and the anode deteriorates much faster over time. As soon as the sacrificial metal completely disintegrates, a replacement metal is again attached to the crap traps.
Boat owners must also contend with aggravated deterioration of essential components of their boats, particularly the aluminum or bronze propeller that is attached to the steel shaft. The issue of deterioration is again resolved with the attachment of a third sacrificial metal to the affected part of the boat. This type of sacrificial metal is preferred over other metallic materials as it oxidizes faster than any other metallic material. This third metal is sacrificed in order to protect important components of the boat such as the propeller. It is essential for boat owners to regularly maintain this sacrificial metal to ensure that this are immediately replaced to prevent the deterioration of important metal parts of their boats.
Using a third sacrificial metal to protect essential metal implements and assets from premature rusting may be considered as a critical task by many industries. However, the determination of the right amount of sacrificial metal is the more critical aspect of the activity. As a general rule, the amount of sacrificial material is determined by the surface area of the material that must be protected from oxidation. There are other factors that are included into the equation. These include the type of material that requires protection and the chemical makeup of the salt water to which the metal is exposed.
One of those metals that make contact is turned into anode. The oxidization process that anodes go through is much faster than it shall have been if these metals are left alone. On the other hand, the other metallic material turns into cathode and the corrosion happens at a much lower rate than it shall have been if left alone. The main concern is not on the behavior of the metals when left alone in seawater but on the resulting corrosion of each metal when they make physical contact. Thus, a sacrificial metal is needed to correct the prevailing problem of corrosion.
This problematic condition plagues industries such as fishing, shipping and other types of industries that are constantly exposed to salt water. The use of sacrificial metals will prevent premature rusting of ship hulls, rails and steel tanks. This is mainly because this type of sacrificial metals rust faster compared to iron. This means that the former will corrode faster than the latter.
This method can also be adopted to increase the service life of crab traps. By using the sacrificial metal, the crab fishermen are able to protect their crab traps as they become the cathode and the anode deteriorates much faster over time. As soon as the sacrificial metal completely disintegrates, a replacement metal is again attached to the crap traps.
Boat owners must also contend with aggravated deterioration of essential components of their boats, particularly the aluminum or bronze propeller that is attached to the steel shaft. The issue of deterioration is again resolved with the attachment of a third sacrificial metal to the affected part of the boat. This type of sacrificial metal is preferred over other metallic materials as it oxidizes faster than any other metallic material. This third metal is sacrificed in order to protect important components of the boat such as the propeller. It is essential for boat owners to regularly maintain this sacrificial metal to ensure that this are immediately replaced to prevent the deterioration of important metal parts of their boats.
Using a third sacrificial metal to protect essential metal implements and assets from premature rusting may be considered as a critical task by many industries. However, the determination of the right amount of sacrificial metal is the more critical aspect of the activity. As a general rule, the amount of sacrificial material is determined by the surface area of the material that must be protected from oxidation. There are other factors that are included into the equation. These include the type of material that requires protection and the chemical makeup of the salt water to which the metal is exposed.
The Importance of Refrigeration Engineering
If you don't think that you have ever come in contact with refrigeration engineering you are wrong! At some point during the week most people come in contact with this and don't even know it. If you own a convenience or grocery store you definitely come in contact with it, in fact you might even need help getting it serviced. Refrigeration engineering simply refers to the way your refrigeration system works. From time to time these systems run into problems which may require that you call on a professional.
Industrial refrigeration is found in many places. As was mentioned above you will find refrigeration systems at your local grocery store and convenience stores, at ice skating rinks, and other large spaces that need to be kept cold. When working properly, the system will keep the area at the preferred temperature which can be changed according to need. As you can see, industrial refrigeration touches our lives a lot more than we might think and if something goes wrong it can go really wrong and affect not just one person but a whole community.
Most grocery stores and food processing plants use what is called ammonia refrigeration. Ammonia works its way through the lines of the system and effectively cools all of the products and space within the system. If the ammonia levels are not exactly right it can lead to higher than desired temperatures. If you are experiencing an increase in temperature it could be due in large part to not enough ammonia. In some systems you can add ammonia yourself or you may need to call out a professional.
Most grocery stores and the like have a refrigeration professional on contract so whenever there is an issue they can simply call on the company that provides them with the services to come out and fix the problem within a couple hours. Depending on your contract, the company will ensure that the problem is fixed within a certain time frame, when possible. For companies it is important to have someone on contract because if the space gets too warm it could potentially ruin hundreds or even thousands of dollars worth of products.
For this reason, many people are going into the refrigeration engineering field. This is a job that is in high demand. You can see why when you stop and realize how many places use refrigeration systems and the possibility that at some point every day, someone will need their system fixed or serviced. Refrigeration is a big business for those that use it and those that service it despite the fact that most people don't realize how much it really does do for them.
Industrial refrigeration is found in many places. As was mentioned above you will find refrigeration systems at your local grocery store and convenience stores, at ice skating rinks, and other large spaces that need to be kept cold. When working properly, the system will keep the area at the preferred temperature which can be changed according to need. As you can see, industrial refrigeration touches our lives a lot more than we might think and if something goes wrong it can go really wrong and affect not just one person but a whole community.
Most grocery stores and food processing plants use what is called ammonia refrigeration. Ammonia works its way through the lines of the system and effectively cools all of the products and space within the system. If the ammonia levels are not exactly right it can lead to higher than desired temperatures. If you are experiencing an increase in temperature it could be due in large part to not enough ammonia. In some systems you can add ammonia yourself or you may need to call out a professional.
Most grocery stores and the like have a refrigeration professional on contract so whenever there is an issue they can simply call on the company that provides them with the services to come out and fix the problem within a couple hours. Depending on your contract, the company will ensure that the problem is fixed within a certain time frame, when possible. For companies it is important to have someone on contract because if the space gets too warm it could potentially ruin hundreds or even thousands of dollars worth of products.
For this reason, many people are going into the refrigeration engineering field. This is a job that is in high demand. You can see why when you stop and realize how many places use refrigeration systems and the possibility that at some point every day, someone will need their system fixed or serviced. Refrigeration is a big business for those that use it and those that service it despite the fact that most people don't realize how much it really does do for them.
Following the Cryptids of Cryptozoology
Cryptozoology
Cryptozoology is the study of Cryptids i.e. animals that have long been extinct but may reappear suddenly. Crypto zoologists believe that Cryptids are the members of the certain extinct species of organisms, very few members of which still roam the earth. Such animals and plants are often discovered in remote places of the planet and the Paleontologist has a separate nomenclature called the "Lazarus" taxa for them. Myths and mystery tend to surround these Cryptids as well as the people who have dedicated their lives in the search of these creatures. Some of the most popularized Cryptids include the Bigfoot, Loch Ness monster, Yeti and many others.
• Loch Ness Monster: Scotland has a number of huge fresh water lakes, locally known as the "Lochs". One such Loch, the "Loch Ness" is rumored to have a big monster. The Monster has been sighted quite a few times but a valid picture is yet to be taken. The Loch Ness was once connected to the sea. Cryptologists believe that a giant sea creature could in fact be trapped in the lake as it got disconnected from the sea. The Loch is so big and so deep that it is impossible to explore it even with the help of the latest technology. Cryptozoologists also believe that there is a breeding population of this creature in the Loch, as it is impossible for any living being to survive for such a long period.
• Yeti: Cryptozoologists also identified a creature named Yeti that is rumored to be sighted often in the high altitudes of Himalayas. Yetis have been depicted in cartoons and Films for a long time as the "Abominable Snow Man". Some of the Paleontologist suggests that Yetis may be the descendant of some primitive primates that lived in the high altitudes of the Himalayas where the human population is sparse.
• Big Foot: Big Foot is the Ape-man that has captured the imagination of people from Canada and the USA. The precise description of this creature varies from one witness to the other, but they are said to be 7-15ft tall and weigh around 400-800 pounds. North American Indian tribes were the first to report this creature.
Some of the skeptics might say that all these creatures are a mere figment of imagination but the Cryptozoologists refuse to budge. However, the chances are getting better each passing day, as with the advancement of technology we can finally find out the truth about these creatures someday in the near future.
Cryptozoology is the study of Cryptids i.e. animals that have long been extinct but may reappear suddenly. Crypto zoologists believe that Cryptids are the members of the certain extinct species of organisms, very few members of which still roam the earth. Such animals and plants are often discovered in remote places of the planet and the Paleontologist has a separate nomenclature called the "Lazarus" taxa for them. Myths and mystery tend to surround these Cryptids as well as the people who have dedicated their lives in the search of these creatures. Some of the most popularized Cryptids include the Bigfoot, Loch Ness monster, Yeti and many others.
• Loch Ness Monster: Scotland has a number of huge fresh water lakes, locally known as the "Lochs". One such Loch, the "Loch Ness" is rumored to have a big monster. The Monster has been sighted quite a few times but a valid picture is yet to be taken. The Loch Ness was once connected to the sea. Cryptologists believe that a giant sea creature could in fact be trapped in the lake as it got disconnected from the sea. The Loch is so big and so deep that it is impossible to explore it even with the help of the latest technology. Cryptozoologists also believe that there is a breeding population of this creature in the Loch, as it is impossible for any living being to survive for such a long period.
• Yeti: Cryptozoologists also identified a creature named Yeti that is rumored to be sighted often in the high altitudes of Himalayas. Yetis have been depicted in cartoons and Films for a long time as the "Abominable Snow Man". Some of the Paleontologist suggests that Yetis may be the descendant of some primitive primates that lived in the high altitudes of the Himalayas where the human population is sparse.
• Big Foot: Big Foot is the Ape-man that has captured the imagination of people from Canada and the USA. The precise description of this creature varies from one witness to the other, but they are said to be 7-15ft tall and weigh around 400-800 pounds. North American Indian tribes were the first to report this creature.
Some of the skeptics might say that all these creatures are a mere figment of imagination but the Cryptozoologists refuse to budge. However, the chances are getting better each passing day, as with the advancement of technology we can finally find out the truth about these creatures someday in the near future.
Why Study Math? - Solving Multi-Step Linear Inequalities - Part I
Unlike an equation, which shows balance or harmony among two expressions, an inequality shows imbalance. That is, an inequality states that one expression is bigger than or less than another expression. Linear inequalities involve expressions which are lines, or linear equations. These inequalities are solved much the same way as equations with one key difference. Read on to enter this curious world.
Let us take the linear equation 2x + 1 = 5. You know to solve for the unknown, x, you subtract 1 from both sides and then divide by 2. Thus x = 2. If we replace the "=" symbol by an inequality symbol such as "<", less than, or ">" greater than, we have a linear inequality. If we choose the former we have 2x + 1 <> with the = symbol to get <=, or less than or equal to, and >= greater than or equal to. In these cases, the "=" symbol permits the right and left sides of the expression to be equal.)
To solve an inequality, we carry out the exact same steps as if it were an equation, keeping the inequality symbol intact. Thus in 2x + 1 < 1 =" 5">= 8. In words, this inequality states that the quantity 3y - 4 is bigger than or equal to the quantity 8. Visually in terms of our balance scale, this inequality says that the left side is in balance with or bigger, that is tipping left, than the right side. To solve, we simply add 4 to both sides and then divide by 3. Doing so gives that y >= 4. Thus if we choose y to be any weight equal to or bigger than 4, our given "imbalance" or balance, in the case when both sides are equal, will be maintained.
The next time you see an expression involving one of the "imbalance" symbols, know that you have an inequality, and that to solve, really requires nothing new. There are some situations, however, that require a little more care. Those we get to in Part II.
Joe is a prolific writer of self-help and educational material and is the creator and author of over a dozen books and ebooks which have been read throughout the world. He is a former teacher of high school and college mathematics and has recently returned as a professor of mathematics at a local community college in New Jersey.
Let us take the linear equation 2x + 1 = 5. You know to solve for the unknown, x, you subtract 1 from both sides and then divide by 2. Thus x = 2. If we replace the "=" symbol by an inequality symbol such as "<", less than, or ">" greater than, we have a linear inequality. If we choose the former we have 2x + 1 <> with the = symbol to get <=, or less than or equal to, and >= greater than or equal to. In these cases, the "=" symbol permits the right and left sides of the expression to be equal.)
To solve an inequality, we carry out the exact same steps as if it were an equation, keeping the inequality symbol intact. Thus in 2x + 1 < 1 =" 5">= 8. In words, this inequality states that the quantity 3y - 4 is bigger than or equal to the quantity 8. Visually in terms of our balance scale, this inequality says that the left side is in balance with or bigger, that is tipping left, than the right side. To solve, we simply add 4 to both sides and then divide by 3. Doing so gives that y >= 4. Thus if we choose y to be any weight equal to or bigger than 4, our given "imbalance" or balance, in the case when both sides are equal, will be maintained.
The next time you see an expression involving one of the "imbalance" symbols, know that you have an inequality, and that to solve, really requires nothing new. There are some situations, however, that require a little more care. Those we get to in Part II.
Joe is a prolific writer of self-help and educational material and is the creator and author of over a dozen books and ebooks which have been read throughout the world. He is a former teacher of high school and college mathematics and has recently returned as a professor of mathematics at a local community college in New Jersey.
Wednesday, July 15, 2009
Starting Your Dance Education
Today there are a wide range of dance classes available for people of all ages. Whether you want to learn modern dance, tap, ballet or belly dancing, there'll be a class out there full of likeminded people who want to learn too. There are several steps that you will need to consider when choosing which kind of class suits your individual needs.
Firstly, think practically about which kind of dance you wish to learn, the desire to dance is usually a strong passion, and you may be absolutely devoted to one kind of dance. If this is the case, then you should probably follow your instincts - dancers need to love their art. If you want to dance as a more fun form of exercise, and to meet new people, think about your tastes in music and the level of activity that will be right for you.
Once you have chosen your kind of dance, it's time to find a good dance school, class or tutor. Looking online for information is a good starting point, or looking in a local directory. Looking at user reviews of potential classes can be extremely revealing about the quality of tutoring provided, and about customer satisfaction.
If you cannot find out much information about a certain class, but are interested in finding out more it is a good idea to ring up and ask for details. It can be very useful to go and see the environment where lessons take place. Ask if you can watch a dance class to see if a tutor's method of teaching is to your liking. You don't want to purchase a lesson only to find that you do not enjoy it and that the tutor is not encouraging or does not provide enough individual support.
There is a temptation to start your dance classes as soon as possible once you decide to go ahead, but be patient. Make sure you have considered all your options, and studied the schools rigorously before finalising your decision. When you have found the ideal dance class, prepare all the things you will need. Most schools or classes require a certain dance uniform. This will vary between styles of dance as well - you may need a tutu for ballet, but are unlikely to need one for tap dancing! Some schools may be very particular about the style and colour of the dance uniform required.
If this is the case, you may not absolutely love your dance uniform, but at least you know it is practical and suitable for what you will be doing. As you gain more experience you should be able to vary your dance clothing more. Your school or class should be able to provide you with information on where to purchase your dance uniform, if you prefer to shop around for better value online, check the style, sizing and brands and find a bargain!
When you start your classes it may be hard at first, but keep at it and your passion and drive will shine through!
Firstly, think practically about which kind of dance you wish to learn, the desire to dance is usually a strong passion, and you may be absolutely devoted to one kind of dance. If this is the case, then you should probably follow your instincts - dancers need to love their art. If you want to dance as a more fun form of exercise, and to meet new people, think about your tastes in music and the level of activity that will be right for you.
Once you have chosen your kind of dance, it's time to find a good dance school, class or tutor. Looking online for information is a good starting point, or looking in a local directory. Looking at user reviews of potential classes can be extremely revealing about the quality of tutoring provided, and about customer satisfaction.
If you cannot find out much information about a certain class, but are interested in finding out more it is a good idea to ring up and ask for details. It can be very useful to go and see the environment where lessons take place. Ask if you can watch a dance class to see if a tutor's method of teaching is to your liking. You don't want to purchase a lesson only to find that you do not enjoy it and that the tutor is not encouraging or does not provide enough individual support.
There is a temptation to start your dance classes as soon as possible once you decide to go ahead, but be patient. Make sure you have considered all your options, and studied the schools rigorously before finalising your decision. When you have found the ideal dance class, prepare all the things you will need. Most schools or classes require a certain dance uniform. This will vary between styles of dance as well - you may need a tutu for ballet, but are unlikely to need one for tap dancing! Some schools may be very particular about the style and colour of the dance uniform required.
If this is the case, you may not absolutely love your dance uniform, but at least you know it is practical and suitable for what you will be doing. As you gain more experience you should be able to vary your dance clothing more. Your school or class should be able to provide you with information on where to purchase your dance uniform, if you prefer to shop around for better value online, check the style, sizing and brands and find a bargain!
When you start your classes it may be hard at first, but keep at it and your passion and drive will shine through!
Education Today and Economy
More and more everyday we are seeing that the unstable economy is affecting people in America at an alarming rate and many individuals are coming up with new ways to protect themselves against such an economy. While almost every American can see the effects, those that are creative in their ways of providing enough income for themselves or their families are the ones that are still living somewhat comfortably.
Some people have decided to work from home as a second or main income in order to increase their household budget. And some individuals have decided to return to school in order to obtain a competitive education in hopes to succeed in a competitive job market. And the best thing about this is that it is getting easier and easier to go back to school not only because now prospective students have the option of taking classes online but also because there are multiple financial resources out there for both the young and the mature who wish to return to school.
The first place to look for help with paying for your education is the federal government. By going to the Free Application for Federal Student Aid website you will be able to apply for both federal financial aid but in many cases your individual state's aid as well. The application is fairly simple and not that long and if approved you could be provided with a good portion of what it will cost for you to return to school. And the best part about the federal aid is that they are grants that pay for your schooling so you never have to worry about paying them back.
The second place to look for help is the school you wish to attend. Many schools have work-study programs that will help students pay for their education. This program will put the student to work at the school and use some of the earned income from the position to be put toward the cost of your education.
Since your education will actually be being paid for by you, you will not have that portion of your education to pay for later so this is a really great way to pay for school.
Scholarships are also a great way to pay for an education. There are a number of sites online that list the many scholarships that are out there with instructions on exactly how to apply. Many scholarship applications require you to write an essay about a specific topic and some require a certain level of academic standing for those that are presently in school. But if you are granted any scholarships that is an additional portion of your education that you will not have to worry about paying later.
Finally, and often a last resort for many, there are school loans. School loans are great when you have run out of aid or if you may have lost your job or can't work when returning to school but other options are better off explored first.
With so many resources out there there is little reason not to return to school and protect yourself from this unstable economy.
Education Versus Training
Many people don't understand the difference between education and training. Education is giving out information and communicating to your trainees. Training is about practice and building skills. Today's younger generation of employees wants to be trained, not educated.
Problem is, if we don’t educate them before we train them, it could lead to problems. Think about how you learned to drive. You need knowledge of the laws and then the actual training of getting behind the wheel. Same can be said for learning about the birds and the bees--if the education part isn’t done effectively, the training could lead to undesirable results!
Mark Flores, director of ops for Chuck E. Cheese’s, uses the macaroni-and-cheese example to demonstrate the difference. We’ve all made mac & cheese plenty of times in our lives, but if we don’t follow the instructions exactly, we might get macaroni soup, crunchy macaroni, or something else other than what we intended. So how do we deliver education and training to ensure consistency?
Manuals. Boooooooooring! We do need documentation, but make it fun! Include tons of photos and minimal text so it’s more of a comic strip look. People are more likely to remember what they see versus what they read, so retention of information is better. Additionally, it’s easier to translate into other languages.
Videos. Better than reading for most employees, but they need to be short segments (3--5 minutes maximum) with tons of visual image changes. Our employees today are used to watching CNN with talking video, a crawler message along the bottom, and the weather forecast on the side--all while having four online chats with their friends. Long, drawn-out videos lose their attention quickly. Watch a segment and go practice what you learn. You can watch the next segment after that.
Online. Golden Corral, White Castle, Sea Island Shrimp House, Buffalo Wild Wings, and Chuck E. Cheese’s are all using or testing e-learning. Since it is self-paced, it goes at the speed of the learner. Be careful: As we’ve seen with e-books, it’s not too comfortable to read a book on a PC, so keep the text to a minimum. Review questions can be built in as a checkpoint for the learner to advance to the next section. Great way to replace video and print, but it’s still not "training."
Tests. We all hate tests! To ensure consistency in tests, keep them simple and visual (use as many pictures as possible), and use multiple-choice, ordering, or true-false format to ensure consistency in grading. Most of our employees no longer take fill-in-the-blank or essay tests. Ensure they have the basics down. Do all your trainers actually grade tests the same way?
All the above forms of "training" are really just education, yet most managers think it’s training. We didn’t get our driver’s license after reading the book, watching the video, and passing a test--we had to demonstrate our skills to the authorities before we received permission to drive. Education is the necessary evil that must come first, though.
Do we follow the same format with our employees? Many companies do not--we just memorize a bunch of useless information the guest cares little about and then we’re ready. You need to be validated on the skills it takes to do the job and re-validated periodically in the future. Knowing the job and doing the job are two entirely different things--and the guest notices.
Skill Validation
Having the new employee demonstrate skills for a manager shows you two things: how good the trainer was, and that the employee can do the functions of the job. We all might think we have the same definition of "greet the guest" or "suggestive sell," but when we see our employees in action, we find it’s all across the board. If we don’t coach them through the skill, they will simply do what they see at other restaurants (which often isn’t good). Conduct these validations every 90--180 days to keep standards top of mind.
People train people. Just because someone is a good employee doesn’t mean they will be a good trainer. The proper tools to educate will help, but the payoff is in the trainer demonstrating, coaching, and validating the skill of a new employee. To illustrate this point to your team, ask your trainers to train you on how to tie your shoes or put on a shirt. Act like you know nothing about it. Point being, it’s a simple task we can all do in our sleep--like ringing up orders or making burgers--but it’s incredibly hard to train someone else how to do it.
Macaroni and cheese anyone?
Sunday, June 21, 2009
Effective Communicative Methods For ESL Lesson Planning
Effective Communicative Methods
Effective Communicative Techniques
Know what you are doing. The starting and end point of every lesson should be an operation of some kind which the student might actually want to perform in the foreign language. of course, this communicative trigger for eliciting students' responses should be tailored and adapted to meet the students' skills and abilities.
Example of a communicative activity: Asking open ended questions, wide enough to generate a variety of responses. Relating to current events could be a good starting point.
Communicative Learning
Learners learn by doing or in this case, speaking. Avoid random corrections of errors and allow students to share their ideas.
Information Gap Activities
The communicative information which is transferred is of the interpersonal (social) type rather than the factual.
Example of a communicative activity: Student A has pictures and student B has words, which when fitted together create a puzzle. In an ideal information gap activity, both students need to communicative and share information.
Remember: a mistake is not always a mistake. Grammatical and phonological mistakes hamper communication. However, a learner who makes mistakes because he or she is trying to do something he has not been told or shown how to which he has not yet mastered, is not really making a mistake at all
The goal of the communicative approach is to have the student communicatively competent which means using the language to communicate, which is the most effective way to learn a language. Here are four major principles of communicative methodology for lesson planning.
Effective Communicative Techniques
Know what you are doing. The starting and end point of every lesson should be an operation of some kind which the student might actually want to perform in the foreign language. of course, this communicative trigger for eliciting students' responses should be tailored and adapted to meet the students' skills and abilities.
Example of a communicative activity: Asking open ended questions, wide enough to generate a variety of responses. Relating to current events could be a good starting point.
Communicative Learning
Learners learn by doing or in this case, speaking. Avoid random corrections of errors and allow students to share their ideas.
Information Gap Activities
The communicative information which is transferred is of the interpersonal (social) type rather than the factual.
Example of a communicative activity: Student A has pictures and student B has words, which when fitted together create a puzzle. In an ideal information gap activity, both students need to communicative and share information.
Remember: a mistake is not always a mistake. Grammatical and phonological mistakes hamper communication. However, a learner who makes mistakes because he or she is trying to do something he has not been told or shown how to which he has not yet mastered, is not really making a mistake at all
Thursday, June 11, 2009
Clinical Preceptors: Tips for Effective Teaching With Minimal Downtime.
Seim, HC & Johnson, OG. Provides a set of practical tips for the community-based teacher to help make clinical instruction of students more efficient. Discusses the need for orientation, setting clear expectations, providing constructive feedback, including students in activities outside the clinical setting and being a role model. From the column 'For the Office-Based Teacher of Family Medicine' in Family Medicine.Developing the Teaching Instinct Modules.National Health Service Education for Scotland. A set of PDF-based modules on clinical teaching covering the following topics: Aims & Objectives, How to Teach in an Ambulatory Care (Outpatient) Teaching Centre, Appraisal, Assessment, How to Teach in the Clinical Skills Centre, Facilitating Learning, Feedback, Learning Contracts, Mentoring, Needs Assessment, Questioning and Listening, Small Group Learning, and SupervisionEducational Monographs.Ohio University - College of Osteopathic Medicine. A series of monographs designed to enhance the preceptoring and teaching skills of clinical faculty. Topics include: The One Minute Preceptor, Integrating the Learner into the Busy Office, Setting Expectations, Teaching at the Bedside, Dealing with the Difficult Learning Situation, The Effective Preceptor, and Evaluation: Making it Work. Each monograph includes self-assessment questions.Effective and Efficient Strategies for Teaching in the Ambulatory Setting.Irby, DM. Most clinical teaching takes place in the context of busy clinical practice where time is at a premium. Microskills enable teachers to effectively assess, instruct, and give feedback more efficiently.
This paper outlines the five basic step involved:
Modules include: Effective Teaching in the Community Practice; Evaluating Performance and Giving Feedback; Teamwork in Health Care; Information Technology; Evidence-Based Practice; Clinician-Patient Relationships; Changing Environment: Managing Care; Health Promotion/Disease Prevention and Working with the Community.Get Out of My Office.Lyons, P. The clinical experience remains the cornerstone of community-based medical education. With a little creativity, physicians can construct a unique educational experience that provides students with skills and knowledge in many aspects of clinical care that they might not see in a traditional community-based experience.
The author describes several methods that allow students to broaden their experience while allowing busy physicians to avoid the 'Get out of my office' syndrome. From the column 'For the Office-Based Teacher of Family Medicine' in Family Medicine.Microskills of the One-Minute Preceptor.Miser, WF. Reviews and apples the five microskills for ambulatory teaching (Neber JO, et al: A five-step "microskills" model of clinical teaching. J Am Board of Fam Pract 1992; 5:419-24), used to provide a logical framework that (a) encourages students to become active learners and that (b) allows you to identify the learning needs of the students and to teach them based on those needs.Office-Based Teacher.Society of Teachers of Family Medicine. Provides physicians involved in community-based teaching with access to the full Office-Based Teacher Series (1996 to present), published regularly in Family Medicine.
Each column provides usable knowledge presented in a readable, enjoyable format.One to one teaching and feedback.Gordon, J. Full text of British Medical Journal article on this topic (BMJ 2003; 326: 543-545), from the ABC of learning and teaching in medicine series (clinical reviews).Preceptor Development Program.Mountain Area Health Education Center. Provides downloadable modules for both preceptors and faculty administrators/developers. Modules include: Teaching in the Busy Practice, Effective Preceptor Feedback, Setting Expectations, Evaluation, Teaching and Learning Styles, Difficult Learning Situation - Prevention, Difficult Learning Situation - Management, Teaching at the Bedside, and the One Minute Preceptor.Preceptor Development Program.Southern New Hampshire Area Health Education Center. Provides resources and training in various topics of interest to preceptors and links to other sites of interest.
Includes a set of modules adapted from those developed by The Mountain Area Health Education Center in Asheville, North Carolina. Module topics include: Feedback; Integrating the Learner in the Busy Practice; Effective Preceptor; Setting Expectations; Evaluation; Teaching Styles, Learning Styles; Preventing Difficult Learning Situation; Managing Difficult Learning Situation; and the One Minute Preceptor.Simple Precepting Tools.Dartmouth Medical School - Office of Community-Based Education and Research.
A succinct guide for preceptors that outlines the following topics: Orienting learners to the practice setting, the One minute preceptor, Constructive feedback, Tips on introducing learners to patients, Two-minute technique for observing learner, Five-step method for teaching clinical skills, and Priming learners for patient encounters.Strategies in Clinical Teaching - Teaching Modules.University of Kansas School of Medicine - Wichita. A series of frame-based tutorial modules on clinical teaching from the University of Kansas School of Medicine, Wichita. Module topics include: Community-Based Teaching Benefits; Strategies for Teaching in a Busy Practice; The Precepting Microskills; Observation and Feedback; Bedside Teaching; What is Evidence-Based Medicine?; Teaching Evidence Based Medicine; and the Ten-Minute Talk - Quick, Painless, and Effective.Teaching on the Run Tips.
Medical Journal of Australia. Provides links to the MJA's excellent set of 12 brief articles covering the following clinical education topics: doctors as teachers; educational guides for teaching in a clinical setting; planning a teaching episode; teaching with patients; teaching a skill; determining competence; effective use of questions; assessment and appraisal; in-training assessment; giving feedback; the junior doctor in difficulty; and planning for learning during clinical attachments.Teaching Skills for Residents.Mount Sinai School of Medicine - Institute for Medical Education. An excellent handout that supports a one day workshop for residents designed to enhance their teaching skills. Topics include Goal Setting; Adult Learning Theory; using the R-I-M-E model (Reporter - Interpreter - Manager - Educator) to Diagnose Learners; Questioning as a Teaching Tool; The 5 Microskills of Clinical Teaching; and Giving Feedback.Teaching Skills Needs Assessment.Michigan State University College of Human Medicine. A simple self-assessment of teaching skills. Compares the self-importance of teaching-related skills to one's current skills level on scales related to setting, specific teaching abilities and selected content areas.
Teaching Techniques in the Clinical Setting - The Emergency Medicine Perspective.Society for Academic Emergency Medicine. Reviews various ways to improve clinical teaching of medical students during an emergency medicine (EM) clerkship. Topics include: Teaching procedural skills to medical students; Student case presentations; Clinical teaching styles; Qualities of an effective clinical teacher and role model; Evaluation of clinical teaching; and Barriers to effective clinical teachingTeaching Tips.Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Offers 20 tips to help medical educators improve their teaching. Topics include: Habits are Habit-Forming; The Bedside is the Best Side for Teaching; A Friendly Little Game, Anyone?; Teach by Example; What Are Your Withholdings?; Experience is the Best Teacher...; Trust the Force, Luke; RIME With Reason; Practice Makes Perfect (Sense); Do You Have a Teaching Mission Statement?; Are You Watchable?; Improve Your Teaching Through Reflection: A "Below-Par" Example; Have the Learner Present in Front of the Patient; Question Your Questioning; Thinking Out Loud; Videotape Yourself; Are You Changing Their Behavior?; Do They Know What They Don't Know?; Switch Gears After 15 Minutes; and Priming the LearnerTen Tips for Effective Teaching.Orientale, E. Provides a 'Top 10 List' of do's and don'ts for working with physicians in training, with a brief discussion of each. Among the Do's are: Be a Role Model and Mentor, Teach Learning and Listen to the Student. Among the Don't are: Avoid Salesmanship and Don't Be Too Busy. From the column 'For the Office-Based Teacher of Family Medicine' in Family Medicine.The Effective Use of Questioning in Clinical Teaching.McMaster University - Program for Faculty Development. A 1-page summary that addresses the purpose of asking students questions, questions types and levels, pitfalls of questioning, effective questioning strategies, and dealing with learner responses.The One Minute Preceptor: 5 Microskills for One-On-One Teaching.Ohio University - College of Osteopathic Medicine. Describes the steps involved in the one-minute preceptor model of clinical teaching and explains how each step fosters effective and efficient teaching and how clinicians can integrate the model into their clinical teaching. Based on a monograph developed by the Mountain AHEC Office of Regional Primary Care Education, Asheville, North Carolina.Topics Pertaining to Teaching Skills.Madigan Army Medical Center - Faculty Development Resource Center. A selection of teaching skills topics, most provided as both text documents (usually in lecture outline format) and PowerPoint presentations. some provided Topics include: After-Clinic Conferences; Evaluating Curriculum Effectiveness; Dynamic Lectures; Identifying and Diagnosing the Learner with Difficulties; The Learning Contract; The Learning Needs Assessment; Facilitating Lifelong Learning; Mentors and Proteges; Dealing with Resident Mistakes; Resident Evaluation; Small Group Teaching; Teaching Procedures; Test-Taking Strategies; and Ward Attending Skills.Tough Talk: A Toolbox for Medical Educators.Fryer-Edwards, K.. A resource developed for medical educators teaching ethics and communication. Sections includes Common teaching challenges plus tips for recovering from them; Optimizing small group dynamics; Providing effective, honest feedback; Helping clinicians develop and operationalize personal learning goals; and Motivating engagement and self-assessment in reluctant participants.
Posted by madhab at 2:26 AM 0 comments
This paper outlines the five basic step involved:
- Get a commitment;
- Probe for underlying reasoning;
- Provide positive feedback;
- Teach general rules;
- Correct errors.
Modules include: Effective Teaching in the Community Practice; Evaluating Performance and Giving Feedback; Teamwork in Health Care; Information Technology; Evidence-Based Practice; Clinician-Patient Relationships; Changing Environment: Managing Care; Health Promotion/Disease Prevention and Working with the Community.Get Out of My Office.Lyons, P. The clinical experience remains the cornerstone of community-based medical education. With a little creativity, physicians can construct a unique educational experience that provides students with skills and knowledge in many aspects of clinical care that they might not see in a traditional community-based experience.
The author describes several methods that allow students to broaden their experience while allowing busy physicians to avoid the 'Get out of my office' syndrome. From the column 'For the Office-Based Teacher of Family Medicine' in Family Medicine.Microskills of the One-Minute Preceptor.Miser, WF. Reviews and apples the five microskills for ambulatory teaching (Neber JO, et al: A five-step "microskills" model of clinical teaching. J Am Board of Fam Pract 1992; 5:419-24), used to provide a logical framework that (a) encourages students to become active learners and that (b) allows you to identify the learning needs of the students and to teach them based on those needs.Office-Based Teacher.Society of Teachers of Family Medicine. Provides physicians involved in community-based teaching with access to the full Office-Based Teacher Series (1996 to present), published regularly in Family Medicine.
Each column provides usable knowledge presented in a readable, enjoyable format.One to one teaching and feedback.Gordon, J. Full text of British Medical Journal article on this topic (BMJ 2003; 326: 543-545), from the ABC of learning and teaching in medicine series (clinical reviews).Preceptor Development Program.Mountain Area Health Education Center. Provides downloadable modules for both preceptors and faculty administrators/developers. Modules include: Teaching in the Busy Practice, Effective Preceptor Feedback, Setting Expectations, Evaluation, Teaching and Learning Styles, Difficult Learning Situation - Prevention, Difficult Learning Situation - Management, Teaching at the Bedside, and the One Minute Preceptor.Preceptor Development Program.Southern New Hampshire Area Health Education Center. Provides resources and training in various topics of interest to preceptors and links to other sites of interest.
Includes a set of modules adapted from those developed by The Mountain Area Health Education Center in Asheville, North Carolina. Module topics include: Feedback; Integrating the Learner in the Busy Practice; Effective Preceptor; Setting Expectations; Evaluation; Teaching Styles, Learning Styles; Preventing Difficult Learning Situation; Managing Difficult Learning Situation; and the One Minute Preceptor.Simple Precepting Tools.Dartmouth Medical School - Office of Community-Based Education and Research.
A succinct guide for preceptors that outlines the following topics: Orienting learners to the practice setting, the One minute preceptor, Constructive feedback, Tips on introducing learners to patients, Two-minute technique for observing learner, Five-step method for teaching clinical skills, and Priming learners for patient encounters.Strategies in Clinical Teaching - Teaching Modules.University of Kansas School of Medicine - Wichita. A series of frame-based tutorial modules on clinical teaching from the University of Kansas School of Medicine, Wichita. Module topics include: Community-Based Teaching Benefits; Strategies for Teaching in a Busy Practice; The Precepting Microskills; Observation and Feedback; Bedside Teaching; What is Evidence-Based Medicine?; Teaching Evidence Based Medicine; and the Ten-Minute Talk - Quick, Painless, and Effective.Teaching on the Run Tips.
Medical Journal of Australia. Provides links to the MJA's excellent set of 12 brief articles covering the following clinical education topics: doctors as teachers; educational guides for teaching in a clinical setting; planning a teaching episode; teaching with patients; teaching a skill; determining competence; effective use of questions; assessment and appraisal; in-training assessment; giving feedback; the junior doctor in difficulty; and planning for learning during clinical attachments.Teaching Skills for Residents.Mount Sinai School of Medicine - Institute for Medical Education. An excellent handout that supports a one day workshop for residents designed to enhance their teaching skills. Topics include Goal Setting; Adult Learning Theory; using the R-I-M-E model (Reporter - Interpreter - Manager - Educator) to Diagnose Learners; Questioning as a Teaching Tool; The 5 Microskills of Clinical Teaching; and Giving Feedback.Teaching Skills Needs Assessment.Michigan State University College of Human Medicine. A simple self-assessment of teaching skills. Compares the self-importance of teaching-related skills to one's current skills level on scales related to setting, specific teaching abilities and selected content areas.
Teaching Techniques in the Clinical Setting - The Emergency Medicine Perspective.Society for Academic Emergency Medicine. Reviews various ways to improve clinical teaching of medical students during an emergency medicine (EM) clerkship. Topics include: Teaching procedural skills to medical students; Student case presentations; Clinical teaching styles; Qualities of an effective clinical teacher and role model; Evaluation of clinical teaching; and Barriers to effective clinical teachingTeaching Tips.Association of Professors of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Offers 20 tips to help medical educators improve their teaching. Topics include: Habits are Habit-Forming; The Bedside is the Best Side for Teaching; A Friendly Little Game, Anyone?; Teach by Example; What Are Your Withholdings?; Experience is the Best Teacher...; Trust the Force, Luke; RIME With Reason; Practice Makes Perfect (Sense); Do You Have a Teaching Mission Statement?; Are You Watchable?; Improve Your Teaching Through Reflection: A "Below-Par" Example; Have the Learner Present in Front of the Patient; Question Your Questioning; Thinking Out Loud; Videotape Yourself; Are You Changing Their Behavior?; Do They Know What They Don't Know?; Switch Gears After 15 Minutes; and Priming the LearnerTen Tips for Effective Teaching.Orientale, E. Provides a 'Top 10 List' of do's and don'ts for working with physicians in training, with a brief discussion of each. Among the Do's are: Be a Role Model and Mentor, Teach Learning and Listen to the Student. Among the Don't are: Avoid Salesmanship and Don't Be Too Busy. From the column 'For the Office-Based Teacher of Family Medicine' in Family Medicine.The Effective Use of Questioning in Clinical Teaching.McMaster University - Program for Faculty Development. A 1-page summary that addresses the purpose of asking students questions, questions types and levels, pitfalls of questioning, effective questioning strategies, and dealing with learner responses.The One Minute Preceptor: 5 Microskills for One-On-One Teaching.Ohio University - College of Osteopathic Medicine. Describes the steps involved in the one-minute preceptor model of clinical teaching and explains how each step fosters effective and efficient teaching and how clinicians can integrate the model into their clinical teaching. Based on a monograph developed by the Mountain AHEC Office of Regional Primary Care Education, Asheville, North Carolina.Topics Pertaining to Teaching Skills.Madigan Army Medical Center - Faculty Development Resource Center. A selection of teaching skills topics, most provided as both text documents (usually in lecture outline format) and PowerPoint presentations. some provided Topics include: After-Clinic Conferences; Evaluating Curriculum Effectiveness; Dynamic Lectures; Identifying and Diagnosing the Learner with Difficulties; The Learning Contract; The Learning Needs Assessment; Facilitating Lifelong Learning; Mentors and Proteges; Dealing with Resident Mistakes; Resident Evaluation; Small Group Teaching; Teaching Procedures; Test-Taking Strategies; and Ward Attending Skills.Tough Talk: A Toolbox for Medical Educators.Fryer-Edwards, K.. A resource developed for medical educators teaching ethics and communication. Sections includes Common teaching challenges plus tips for recovering from them; Optimizing small group dynamics; Providing effective, honest feedback; Helping clinicians develop and operationalize personal learning goals; and Motivating engagement and self-assessment in reluctant participants.
Posted by madhab at 2:26 AM 0 comments
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